THE 

PRACTICAL 

BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER'S 
~     GUIDE: 


TREATISE 

ON 


BRASS  FOUNDING,  MOULDING,  THE  METALS  AND 
THEIR  ALLOYS,  ETC, 


BY  JAMES   LAKKIN, 

fcATB  CONDUCTOR  OF  THE  BRASS    FOUNDRY    DEPARTMENT  IN    THE   PENH 
WORKS,  PHILADELPHIA, 


A  NEW,  REVISED  AND  GREATLY  ENLARGED  EDITION. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

Industrial  Publishers,  Booksellers,  and  Importers, 

810  WALNUT  STREET. 
LONDON : 

E.  &  F.  N.  SPON, 

125  STRAND. 

1907. 


A-  3 


COPYRIGHT, 

"~BY  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO 
1892. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 


As  shown  by  the  constant  demand  for  it,  THE 
PRACTICAL  BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER'S  GUIDE 
still  maintains  the  popularity  and  reputation  it  haa 
enjoyed  for  so  many  years. 

Th3  issue  of  a  new  edition  having  become  nec- 
essary, a  large  amouut  of  new  and  important  matter 
has  been  added,  in  order  to  bring  the  work  up  to 
modern  times.  Some  portions  of  the  original  edition 
being  out  of  date  have  been  eliminated,  whilst  in 
others  a  few  alterations  have  been  made.  However, 
in  making  these  alterations  as  well  as  the  additions, 
the  aim  of  the  author — to  prepare  a  handy  book  for 
the  use  of  the  practical  workman — has  been  con- 
stantly kept  in  view. 

The  book  has  also  been  provided  with  a  copious 
table  of  contents  and  a  very  full  index,  which  will 
add  further  value  by  rendering  any  subject  in  it 
easy  and  prompt  of  reference. 

In  its  enlarged  and  improved  shape,  it  is  hoped 


IV  PREFACE   TO   THE   REVISED   EDITION. 

that  the  work  will  fully  maintain  its  claim  to  the 
favor  it  has  so  long  enjoyed  as  a  full  and  intelligible 
guide  in  the  workshop. 

Philadelphia,  June  16,  1892. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


THE  world  at  present  groans  under  a  load  of  new 
publications  on  every  branch  of  science  and  art;  with 
which  no  former  period  of  our  literary  annals  can  for 
a  moment  be  compared. 

The  most  assiduous  students,  unable  to  peruse  a 
thousandth  part  of  the  works  which  are  daily  soliciting 
their  attention,  are  quite  perplexed  and  distressed 
about  what  to  choose  and  what  to  reject. 

This  I  have  frequently  found  to  be  the  case  with 
myself,  and  while  debating  the  question  in  my  own 
mind,  have  lost,  in  doubt  and  uneasiness,  the  time  I 
meant  to  set  apart  for  practical  manipulation. 

Impressed,  therefore,  with  the  unspeakable  disad- 
vantages that  result  from  the  circumstances  just  stated, 
and  anxious  to  save  others,  in  some  degree,  from  that 
unpleasant  dilemma  in  which  I  have  myself  been  so 
often  placed,  I  have  resolved  on  the  present  publica- 
tion, which  I  hope  will  to  a  very  great  extent  accom- 
plish the  useful  object  I  have  in  view. 

With  what  judgment,  however,  the  design  has  been 
(v) 


Vi  PREFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION. 

formed,  and  with  what  skill  it  has  been  executed,  it 
becomes  not  me  to  determine — that  question,  to  the 
result  of  which  I  am  deeply  alive,  remains  now  with  a 
higher  tribunal. 

During  the  last  fifteen  years  I  have,  from  time  to 
time,  contributed  papers  to  well  known  mechanical 
and  philosophical  publications,  on  subjects  herein 
discussed.  These  I  have  carefully  revised  for  the 
present  work,  and  have  added  much  information 
gleaned  in  the  field  of  experience,  and  from  the  arcana 
of  science. 

I  would  add  in  conclusion,  that  I  have  been  prac- 
tically employed  in  the  business  for  thirty-four  years, 
having  conducted  the  work,  in  all  its  branches,  at 
Messieurs  Sandford  et  Varreles,  Rue  de  Rochecourt, 
one  of  the  largest  ateliers  in  Paris,  as  well  as  at  the 
British  government  works,  steam-engine  and  ship- 
building yard,  Woolwich,  London,  for  the  last  eleven 
years — so  that  the  reader  may  relieve  himself  of  all 
doubt  and  difficulty  in  the  matter. 

JAMES  LARKIN. 


CONTENTS. 


PAOB 

On  the  properties  of  the  metals 1 

The  most  striking  property  of  metals 2 

Transmission  of  light  by  metals;  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  obser- 
vations    3 

Crystalline  form  of  metals 4 

Malleability  and  ductility  of  metals .        5 

Table  showing  the  order  which  the  metals  bear  to  one  an. 

other  in  respect  to  their  properties 6 

Table  of  hardness  of  metals  •    •    • 7 

Fusibility  of  metals 8 

Odor  and  taste  of  metals;  Specific  gravity  of  metals  ...        9 

Combination  of  metals  with  oxygen 10 

Metallic   oxides ;    Combinations  of    metals  with    oxygen, 

soluble  and  insoluble  in  water 12 

On   metallic    alloys;    Brass,    pinchbeck,   bell-metal    and 

pewter 14 

Type-metal;  Tin-foil;  Amalgam  of  zinc  and  mercury; 
Gold  and  silver  coins ;  Evolution  of  heat  in  the  forma- 
tion of  alloys 15 

Preparation  of  alloys,  and  phenomena  observed  thereby    .      16 

Native  metals ;  Definition  of  an  ore 17 

Occurrence  and  reduction  of  ores  ;  Definition  of  metallurgy.      18 
Table  of  metals,  showing  authors  and  dates  of  their  dis- 
covery, their  specific  gravity,  melting  points  and  equiv- 
alents        19 

On  the  conducting  powers  of  various   metals  for  voltaic 

electricity;  researches  of Pouillet 20 

Table  showing  the  degrees   of  heat  evolved  by  an  equal 

current  from  different  metals 21 

(viH 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

PAQH 

Table  of  experimental  results  as  to  some  of  the  chemical 
and  physical  properties  of  the  atomic  alloys  of  copper 

and  zinc,  and  of  copper  and  tin,  by  R.  Mallet 22 

Table  showing  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the 

atomic  alloys  of  copper  and  tin 23 

Behavior    of  metals  and  alloys  in    melting  and  congeal- 
ing ;  Melting  points  of  metals 24 

Transition  of  metals  from  a  solid  to  a  fluid  state  ;  Dimen- 
sions of  patterns  for  castings 25 

Shrinkage  of  various  metals ;  Table  of  figures  by  which  the 

weight  of  a  casting  can  be  calculated  beforehand   ...      26 
Phenomena  in    casting  due  to  shrinkage;  Explanation  of 

strain  in  the  rim  of  a  pulley       27 

Strain  in  a  ring 28 

Shrinkage  strains  within  hollow  spherical  steel  castings  .      29 
General  laws    regarding  shrinkages  as   presented  by  Mr. 

Alfred  E.  Watkins •   • 30 

On  founding 32 

On  brass  founding 3? 

Copper;  Purification  of  copper;  Mr.  Lewis  Thompson's  in- 
vention           35 

On  the  reduction  of  copper 36 

Tin,  or  Bedil  in  the  Hebrew 37 

Brass  of  the  Phoenicians ;  Native  tin  ;  Tin  stone,  stream 

tin  ;  Block  tin  and  grain  tin  ;   East  Indian  tin 38 

On  the  reduction  of  tin,  grain,  and  block  tin 39 

Zinc 40 

Lead 41 

Antimony    .        42 

Wire-drawing   ductility  of  metals,   and    their   values   as 
laminable   substances ;    Properties   of  alloys  of  copper 

and  tin 43 

Temper 44 

Bronze  for  cannon,  statues,  etc.;  On  bell  metal 45 

On  copper  and  tin  mixtures 46 

Alloys  of  copper  and  zinc ;  Table  of  the  best  proportions 
of  the  principal  mixtures 47 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

Alloys  of  copper,  zinc,  tin  and  lead 49 

Manheim  gold  ;  Pinchbeck 50 

Princess  metal  ;  Artificial  gold  ;  Fine  brazing  solder  ...  51 
Brass  moulding  ;  Formation  of  sand  moulds ;  Blown  cast- 
ings   52 

Materials  for  facing  the  moulds ;  Proportions  of  sand  and 

loam  used  in  the  formation  of  the  moulds 53 

Metallic  moulds  ;  Casting  of  bullets ;  Moulding  of  pewter 

pots,  inkstands,  printing  types,  etc 54 

Method  of  filling  the  moulds  ;  Sand-burning 55 

Moulding  of  inflammable  complex  objects 56 

Moulding  of  a  model  moulded  in  wax  ;  Founding  of  bells  .  57 

Brass  guns 58 

Figure  casting 60 

Composition  for  cores  for  difficult  jobs 61 

Malleable  iron  castings  ;  Classification  of  cast-iron    ...  62 
Gray  or  No.  ]  foundry  pig;    White  cast-iron  ;  Mottled  iron  63 
Melting  the  iron  for  malleable  castings ;  Moulding,  clean- 
ing and  annealing  malleable  castings 64 

Use  of  powdered  iron  in  annealing  malleable  castings  ...  65 

Annealing  boxes  and  annealing  ovens 66 

Articles  usually  made  of  malleable  cast  iron  ;  Process  of 

making  malleable  castings  with  the  use  of  oxide  of  iron  .  67 
Wrought    iron  (or  mitis)  castings  ;  Discovery    by  Messrs. 
Wittenstroem  and    Nobel ;  Advantages    of  an    addition 

of  aluminium  to  fluid  iron 70 

Best  method  of  alloying  aluminium  with  iron   ......  71 

Details  of  the  production  of  mitis  castings 72 

Analyses  of  mitis  metal  by  Mr.  Edward  Riley 73 

Manufacture  of  steel  castings 76 

Crucible  steel  castings 77 

Bessemer  steel  castings 78 

Open  hearth  steel  castings :  Mode  of  making  open  hearth 
steel    castings   according  to  Mr.  Alexander  L.    Holley  ; 

The  furnace 79 

The  initial  bath 80 

The  softening  or   refining   materials ;    Slag-tests ;    Metal- 
tests  before  the  final  additions  .  .                                     .    .  81 


I  CONTENTS. 

PAGI 

The  final  additions 82 

Difficulties  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  castings;  Blow- 
holes    83 

Manner  of  overcoming  the  difficulty  connected  with  blow- 
holes    84 

Shrinkage  and  ways  of  remedying  this  evil 85 

Chemical    constitution  ;  Stripping  ;    Mechanical    pressure  ; 

Rising  head  ;  Moulding 86 

Shrinkage  holes 87 

Casting  of  brass ;  Materials  and  tools  required  for  model- 
ing..... .  88 

Shrinkage  of  brass  castings 89 

How  to  take  impressions   and  casts  from   existing  works ; 

To  prevent  wooden  patterns  from  absorbing  moisture  .  90 

Arrangement  of  ordinary  work  in  the  flask Bl 

Green  sand  mould  ;  Plate  moulding  . 92 

Cores  and  how  to  make  them 94 

Moulding  of  thin   brass   castings   and   of  small   animals, 

butterflies,  leaves,  etc 95 

Furnaces  for  melting  brass 96 

Crucibles  for  melting  brass ;  Mixing  and  pouring   brass  ; 

Fuel  for  the  brass  furnace 97 

Manner  of  feeding  the  metal  into  the  crucible 98 

Pouring  the  metal 99 

Casting  of  bronze  ;  Arrangement  of  French  bronze  works  ; 
M.  Collas's  machine  for  the  automatic  reduction  or  en- 
largement of  solid  forms  ....  , iOO 

Moulding  of  small  articles  ;  Sands  employed  in  moulding; 

Substances  used  for  models jOl 

Facing  sand ;  Sand  cores ;  What  the  perfection  of  bronze 

casting  consists  in  ;  Melting  the  bronze 102 

Metals  used  for  bronze  ;  Casting  the  bronze ;   Cloisonne  or 

partition  work 103 

Antiquity  of  the  art  of  founding  statues i04 

The  c£re-perdu,  or  waste-wax  process 105 

Modern  method  of  founding  statues 108 

Bell-founding;  Composition  of  bell-metals 11C 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAQB 

Mixture  suitable  for.  bells,  according  to  Lafond;  Experi- 
ments in  substituting  other  metals  for  bell-metal ;  Dr. 

Percy's  experiments Ill 

M.  Saint  Claire  Deville's  experiment  with  a  bell  of  pure 

aluminium;  The  constituent  parts  of  a  bell 112 

What  belongs  to  a  complete  church  peal ;  Moulding  and 

casting  of  small  bells 113 

Process,  of  moulding  the  patterns  in  sand  .    . 114 

Moulding  the  bell  in  an  upright  position 115 

Moulding  the  bell  in  inverted  position 116 

Moulding  and  casting  large  bells  ;  Principal  conditions  for 

a  good  bell 117 

Manner  of  tracing  the  correct  profile  of  a  bell  of  given 

diameter,  illustrated  and  described 118 

Dimensions  of  eight  bells  to  produce  the  eight  notes  of  the 

diatonic  scale 121 

Variation  in  the  weights  of  bells  of  similar  figures  ;  Mode 

of  hanging  bells 122 

Moulding  large  bells 123 

Loam    for   constructing  .the   mould ;  Construction  of  the 

core,  illustrated  and  described 124 

Mode  of  applying  the  loam  in  moulding  a  bell 125 

Moulding  of  the  cope 126 

Moulding  the  crown  of  the  bell 127 

Casting  large  bells 128 

Melting  and  sampling  the  metal 129 

Reverberatory  furnace  illustrated  and  described 130 

Finishing  the  bell ;  Repairing  cracked  bells 132 

We^ht  of  a  few  peals  of  bells 133 

Analysis  of  several  bell-metals 134 

List  of  large  bells 135 

Chill-casting ;  Properties  of  white  cast-iron 136 

Results  obtained  by  the  process  of  chilling  a  casting  .    .    .  137 
Use  of  chill-castings ;  Chilled  and  non-chilled  portions  of 

the  tong  of  a  railroad  frog,  illustrated 138 

Moulding  a  chilled  roll,  the  journals  of  which  are  to  re- 
main roft,  illustrated  and  described  ....»<    ...  139 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGl 

Casting  a  chilled  roll 141 

Depth  of  the  chill 142 

Chill-mould  for  a  railroad  wheel,  illustrated  and  described   143 
Description  of  the  largest  establishment  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  chilled  wheels  in  the  United  States   145 

Average  life  of  a  chilled  cast  wheel .    .    153 

F.  Tellander's  patent  for  the  preparation  of  hollow  chill- 
castings,  illustrated  and  described;  Casting  without 

core,  illustrated  and  described 154 

Casting  on  to  other  metals 157 

Moline's  invention  for  the  combination  of  wrought  and  cast 
iron  in  the  manufacture  of  window  frames  ;  Ornamenta- 
tion of  wrought  iron  railings  159 

Burning-on  ;  Casting  ornamental  iron  railings 161 

Mode  of  repairing  a  piece  of  machine  framing,  the  necks  of 

rolls  or  a  standard .     IG'A 

Bending  of  cast  iron  ;  Repairing  holes  on  the  surface  of  a 

casting 163 

Casting  brass  nuts  on  screws 164 

New  process  of  casting  iron  and  othjer  metals  upon  lace, 
embroideries,  fern-leaves  and  other  combustible  materials.  165 

Cores  in  heavy  castings 168 

Core  for  difficult  castings 169 

Brass  mirrors  ;  Copper;    Metals 170 

Surface  of  metals  ;  Blanched  copper  ;  British  weapons  and 
tools  in  bronze,  anciently  called  Corinthian  and  Syracuse 

brass ••....    171 

On  brass 172 

Method  of  casting  in  plaster — medallions,  etc 173 

To  transfer  engravings  to  plaster  casts  ;  To  varnish  plaster 

casts.    ...        , 175 

To  cast  concave  or  convex  moulds  of  medals,  on  u  tin-foil" 

with  plaster ' 176 

To  cast  vegetables,  insects,  small  birds,  frogs,  fish,  etc.,  in 

plaster  moulds • 177 

To  prepare  a  metal  for  casting  vegetables,  etc.;  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  fusible  metal ;  Rose's  alloy  ;  Dr.  Dal  ton's  fusi- 
ble alloy 178 


CONTENTS.  X1U 

PAGE 

To  cast  in  wai 179 

Tp  cast  in  sulphur 180 

To  cast  in  glue  ;  To  make  a  fine  glue,  wherewith  you  may 

cast  curious  medals 181 

To  cast  in  bread  paste  ...    .....    • 182 

To  cast  figures  in  imitation  of  ivory  ;  Rice-glue  statuary  .    183 

A  composition  for  ornaments 184 

Alloys,  amalgams,  etc.;  On   what  the  formation  of  alloys 
depends ;    Definitions   of  alloy  and  amalgam ;    Natural 

alloys 185 

Importance  of  artificial  alloys 186 

Examples  of  increased  and  diminished  density  in  alloys.    .    187 

Bronze,  bell-metal  and  speculum-metal 188 

Changes  in  alloys  indicating  chemical  action  ;  Meteoric  iron  189 

Yellow  brass 190 

To  make  copper  medals  and  medallions 191 

Amalgam ;  Native  amalgam  ;  Amalgamation  of  metals  with 

mercury 192 

Metals  requiring  heat  to  amalgamate  them 193 

Decomposition  of  amalgams 194 

Bismuth 195 

On  friction  ;  Table    showing    the    comparative    amount  of 

friction  of  different  metals 196 

Sir  John  Rennie's  experiments  relative  to  unguents    .   .   .    197 
Bells  ;  Invention  of  large  bells  by  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola ; 

Large  bells  of  Moscow,  Russia 198 

Large  bells  in  England  ;  On  Fluxes  ;  Black  flux  •    .    .   .    .    199 

Argol 200 

Use  of  charcoal  as  a  flux  ;  Excellent  flux  for  copper  ;    Fus- 
ing and   melting   points  ascertained  by    Prof.  Daniell's 

registered  pyrometer •.    201 

Bismuth  and  its  properties  ;  Fluidity  ;  Quantities  of  heat 
contained  by  some  bodies  when  rendered  fluid    ....    202 

Anti-friction  metals • 203 

Table  for  converting  decimal  proportions  into  divisions  of 

the  pound  avoirdupois  ;  Application  of  the  table.    ...    20* 
Keller's  statue  composition  ;  Orichalcum,  the  bronze  of  the 
Romans    .  .    205 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGl 

The  Chinese  packfong ;  Copper 206 

Silver    steel ;  Copper   and  antimony ;  Antimony  and  tin  ;    . 

Copper  and  bismuth 20*7 

Bismuth  and  lead  ;  Full  measure  of  capacity  of  tin   and 

lead  ;  Brilliants  of  Fahlun 208 

Queen's  metal ;  Tin  and  zinc ;  Tin  and  iron 209 

To  silver  copper  ;  Mosaic  gold  (ormulu)   . 210 

To  bronze  brass,  etc 211 

Lacquers  ;  Deep   gold-colored   lacquer  ;  Gold  colored  lac- 
quer ;  Red-colored  lacquer 212 

Pale  brass-colored  lacquer  ;  Gold  laquer  ;  Red  lacquer  .  .    213 

Pale  brass  lacquer  ;  Pale  tin  lacquer 214 

Another  deep  gold  lacquer  ;  green  bronze  liquid 215 

To  silver  ivory  ;  zincking .    216 

Table  showing  the  weight  of  a  squarefoot  of  different  metal 
plates;  Table  showing  the  weight  of  cast-metal  balls  .    .    217 

Table  showing  the  weight  of  cast-iron  pipes 218 

Table  showing  the  weight  of  cast-metal  cylinders ;  Table 

showing  the  specific  gravity  and  weight  of  materials  .    .    219 
Table  showing  the  specific  cohesion  and  strength  of  metals.  220 

Table  showing  the  direct  cohesion  of  metals 222 

Table  showing  the  resistance  of  metals  to  pressure  ;  Table 

showing  the  resistance  of  metals  to  torsion 223 

Gold  and  silver  solders ;  Hard  solder  for  gold ;  Gold  sol- 
der; hard  solder  for  silver 224 

Another  silver  solder ;  Brass  solders  ;  Method  for  soldering 

gold  and  silver 225 

To  cleanse  silver  after  it  is  soldered  ;  To  cleanse  gold  after 

it  is  soldered  ;  silver  solder  for  jewelry 226 

Trinket  composition  ;  Silver  plate  and  medal  alloy  ;  Gold 

coin  of  America  alloy  ;  Solder  for  iron 227 

Autogenous  soldering  ;  Arrangement  of  a  Daniell's  cock  .    228 

Soft  solders  ;  A  solder  for  lead 229 

Plumber's  solder  ;  Composition  of  pewter  ;  White  metal.   .    230 
Mosaic  mixture  ;    Silvery  looking  metal ;  Metal   for   flute 

valve  keys;  German  titanium  .   . 231 

Spanish  titanium ;  Britannia  metal ;  Columbia  metal  .    .    232 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGI 

Type  metals ;  Metal   for  small   types ;  Type  metal  of  the 

French  letter  founders  ;  Berlin  type  metal 233 

German  silver 234 

Speculum  metal  ...  • 235 

Remarks  ;  Use  of  arsenic  in  metallic  compositions  ....  237 

Platina. 239 

On  the  properties  of  arsenic 240 

Experimental  proofs  of  the  properties  of  arsenic 241 

Fontainemoreau's  new  alloys  of  zinc,  a  substitute  for  bronze, 

copper  and  brass  ...  • • 242 

Some  modern  bronzes  ;  Aluminium  bronze  ;  Properties  of 

the  various  alloys  of  aluminium  with  copper 247 

Directions  for  preparing  aluminium  bronzes 249 

Manufacture  of  aluminium  bronzes  by  the  Cowles  Electric 

Smelting  and  Aluminium  Company 251 

Casting  aluminium  bronze 254 

Forging  aluminium  bronze  ;  Illustration  of  some  of  the 

peculiar  properties  of  aluminium  bronze 255 

Delta  metal,  its  composition,  and  advantages  claimed  for  it  256 

Deoxidized  bronze 257 

Manganese  bronze  and  its  manufacture  by  Mr.  P.  M.  Par- 
sons of  the  Manganese  Bronze  Co.,  Deptford,  England  ; 

Ferro-manganese ;  Cupro-mangariese 259 

Composition  of  alloys  prepared  with  the  assistance  of 

cupro-manganese ;     Phosphor-bronze ;    Montefiore     and 

Kiinzel's  experiments 260 

Tenacity  and  ductility  of  phosphor-bronze  wire  according 

to  Kirkaldy 262 

Copper  phosphide  and  its  preparation 263 

Phosphide  of  tin  and  its  preparation ;  Preparation  of 

phosphor-bronze 264 

Useful  sorts  of  phosphor-bronze  according  to  Thurston  .  .  265 

Platinum-bronze 266 

Silicon-bronze 267 

Composition  of  silicon-bronze  used  for  wires;  Steel-bronze 

or  Uchatius  bronze ' 268 

Tobin  bronze  ;  Analyses  of  Tobin  bronze  by  Dr.  Chas.  B. 

Dudley  . 269 


X?i  CONTENTS. 

PAOl 

On  zinc  as  a  protective  covering  for  iron,  and  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  process  of  electro-deposition  for  that  purpose; 

Cause  of  the  corrosion  of  iron 270 

Non-effectiveness  of  tin  and  paint  for  the  protection  of 

iron  ;  Electrical  property  of  zinc  in  connection  with  iron 

and  other  metals 271 

Impurities  of  zinc ;  Cause  of  the  rapid  destruction  of 

zinc  .  » 272 

Objections  to  the  immersion  of  iron  in  melted  zinc  ;  Extract 

from  M.  Dumas's  report  to  the  French  Academy  ....  273 
Purity  of  the  metal  deposited  by  the  electro  process  .  .  .  274 
Protecting  influence  of  zinc  upon  other  metals  ;  Opinions 

of  eminent  chemists 275 

Adaptation  of  the  electric  processes  to  the  zincking  of  iron  276 

Decay  of  iron  in  contact  with  lead 277 

Zinc  not  suitable  for  protecting  articles  in  use  at  sea  ...  278 
Preference  at  present  for  zincking  iron  by  immersion  or 

galvanizing 279 

Water  in  pipes  ;  Table  showing  the  quantity  and  weight  of 

water  contained  in  one  fathom  of  length  of  pipes  .  .  .  280 
On  crucibles  ;  Composition  for  crucibles  used  in  the  Royal 

Foundry  of  Berlin 281 

Hessian  crucibles  ;  Black  lead  crucibles 282 

Mr.  Anstey's  patent  process  for  the  manufacture  of 

crucibles 283 

Plumbago 284 

Annealing  steel ;  Disadvantages  of  using  too  high  a  heat  .  285 
Illustration  of  the  destruction  of  the  crystalline  structure  of 

steel  by  long-continued  heating 286 

Behavior  of  a  piece  of  fine  tap-steel  after  having  been  in  a 

furnace  overnight ;  Proper  way  of  annealing  steel  .  .  .  287 

Hardening  steel ;  On  boron  or  borax 289 

Properties  of  borax 290 

Uses  of  borax 291 

On  sulphur;  Occurrence  of  sulphur 292 

Uses  of  sulphur  ;  Sulphurous  acid 293 

Combinations  of  sulphur  ;  Selenium 294 


CONTENTS.  XV11 

PAG« 

Properties  of  selenium  ;  On  chlorine 295 

Chlorides  ;  Corrosive  sublimate,  sources  of  chlorine  .    .   .  296 

Metallic  oxides 297 

Anilinp  bronzing  fluid  ;  Bronze  Barb6dienne  on  brass  .    .  298 

Steel-gray  coating  on  brass ;  To  brown  gun-barrels    .    .    .  299 
Varnish  for  gun-barrels  that  have  undergone  the  process  of 

browning  5  Ethereal  solution  of  gold 300 

To  coat  small  nails,  etc.,  with  tin 301 

Bronzing  electrotype  casts ;  Chemical  bronze 302 

Black  lead  bronze 304 

Carbonate  of  iron  bronze  ;  To  tin  iron 305 

Liquid  glue  ;  Artificial  fire  clay 306 

A.  cement  which  resists  the  action  of  fire  and  water   .    .    .  307 
Cement  for  the  joints  of  cast-iron  ;  Niello-metallic  orna- 
ments     308 

Tracing  paper 309 

To  fix  drawings  ....    • 310 

Antidote  to  arsenic  ;  To  soften  ivory;  To  separate  the  me- 
tallic portion  from  gold  and  silver  lace 311 

Blueing  and  gilding  steel 312 

To  harden  steel  dies 313 

Portable  glue  ;  Prevention  of  corrosion 314 

Cement;  Soluble  glass 315 

Japanning 316 

To  preserve  polished  steel  from  rust ;  Cement  for  attaching 

metal  to  glass 318 

Varnish  for  colored  drawings  ;  Japanner's  copal  varnish  ; 

Soft  varnish .  319 

Hard  varnish  ;  Flexible  varnish  ;  French  polish 320 

Brunswick  black  ;  Mordant  varnish 321 

Several    mordant  varnishes ;    Superior    green   transparent 

varnish 322 

Etching  varnish 323 

Coloring  brass  a  deep  blue 324 

On   pattern  making — contraction  of  metals,  etc.;  Contrac- 
tion-rules   325 

•Ariations  in  the  qualities  of  iron 326 


XV111  CONTENTS. 

PAQl 

Conducting  neat  of  brass  and  iron 327 

Varieties  of  tombac ;  On  sand-core  moulding,  blackening, 

etc.;  Forms  of  cores 323 

Composition  of  cores  ;  Rock-sand  and  free-sand  for  cores  .    329 
Materials  for  tempering  the  sand  ;  Stiffening  longer  cores.    33C 

Black-wash  for  cores  ;  Core  sands • 332 

Chemical  composition  of  good  moulding  sand 333 

On  washing  sweepings,  ashes,  etc.,  from  brass  foundry  fur- 
naces—gilders' and  jewellers'  workshops — and  places 

where  metallurgical  operations  are  carried  on 334 

Cornish  refining  flux ;  Crude  or  white  flux 337 

Black  flux  ;  Cornish  reducing  flux  ;  Imitation  silver  metal ; 

On  case-hardening  iron 338 

Varnish  for  iron ;  Varnish  for  polished  iron ;  To  preserve 
gum  arable  solutions  ;  Best  composition  of  brass  for  roll- 
ing and  forging 339 

Remarks  on  the  fluxing  of  metals 340 

Tinning  cast  copper,  or  brass 341 

Table  of  experiments  on  the  tenacity  of  metals 342 

On  reducing  copper  with  white  arsenic;  Tin  and  zinc    .    .    343 
Tin  and   iron ;  Copper,  tin   and    iron    alloy ;    Corinthian 

bronze  ;  Syracuse  bronze 344 

Ship  nails  composition,  strong  and  durable  ;  Chinese  white 
metals;  Fenton's  anti-friction  metal;  To  make  white 

lacquer 345 

On  the  strength  of  materials  ;  Limit  of  elasticity     ....    347 
Permanent  "  set";  Strains  to  which  materials  may  be  sub- 
jected    .   .   . 348 

Table  of  the  ultimate  resistance  of  different  kinds  of  mate- 
rials to  extension  and  compression 349 

Variation  in  the  absolute  ultimate  strength  of  materials  .    351 
Table  of  experiments  on  short  cylinders  of  timber,  with 
flat  ends,  subjected  to  a  compressive  force  ;  Safe  amount 
of  strain  to  charge  materials  with  in  constructions.    .    .    352 

Mean  ultimate  strength  of  wood 353 

On  the  strength  of  iron — cast  iron 354 

Resistance  to  extension  ;  Experiments  by  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute on  American  cast-iron  356 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAOH 

Limit  of  elasticity  of  cast-iron  ;  White  and  gray  cast-iron  ; 

Properties  of  gray  cast-iron 356 

Description  of  the  different  varieties  of  cast-iron  .....    357 

Merits  of  hot  blast  and  cold-blast  iron 359 

Durability  of  cast-iron  under  exposure  ;  Mr.  Mallet's  re- 
searches on  this  subject -.  360 

Composition  for  silvering  brass 362 

To  silver  brass  ;  Resistance  to  compression  ;  Mr.  Hodgkin- 

son's  experiments 363 

Table  giving  the  results  of  Mr.  Hodgkinson's  experiments; 
Resistance  to  a  transverse  strain ;  Theory  of  the  trans- 
verse strain  illustrated 365 

Investigation  of  the  circumstances  of  a  body  submitted  to  a 
transverse  strain ;  Table  showing  the  results  of  Mr. 
Hodgkinson's  experiments  on  bars  of  cold-blast  iron  .  .  368 

Static  pressure  of  water  under  different  heads 369 

Table  showing  the  head  of  water  a  cast-iron  pipe  will  sus- 
tain   371 

Directions  for  preparing  and  fitting  Babbitt's  anti-at- 
trition metal 372 

Soldering   fluid   for  soft   solder ;  Alloy   for   the  standard 

measure  used  by  government 374 

Tutenag  ;  Expansion  metal ;  Bronzing  gun  barrels    .    .   .    373 
Index   .  .377 


BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER'S  GUIDE. 


ON   THE   PROPERTIES   OF  THE   METALS. 

THE  metals  constitute  by  far  the  most  numerous 
class  of  undecompounded  bodies  in  chemical  arrange- 
ments. They  are,  in  general,  readily  distinguished 
from  other  substances,  by  characters  which  every 
one  recognises ;  but  to  an  ordinary  observer  they  do 
not  appear  to  differ  essentially  from  one  another; 
they  seem  rather  to  owe  their  differences  of  colour, 
and  other  physical  properties,  to  a  tinge  and  cha- 
racter given  to  them  by  adventitious  circumstances, 
and  perhaps  some  trifling  admixture  of  other  sub- 
stances. This  opinion  is  natural,  and  was  at  one 
time  the  prevailing  doctrine  of  the  learned. 

When  chemistry  began  to  be  developed  in  the 
hands  of  the  alchemists — upon  whom  it  has  been 
fashionable  to  heap  ridicule  for  the  extravagances 
nf  their  notions — it  was  generally  admitted  that  all 

m 


2  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

metals  were  essentially  the  same ;  and  as  gold  was 
reckoned  the  most  precious,  it  was  assumed  to  be 
the  pure  basis  of  all  the  other  metals.  Upon  this 
assumption,  the  aim  of  alchemy  was  direct  and  ra- 
tional; its  object  was  to  separate  the  substance, 
whatever  it  might  be,  the  presence  of  which  pre- 
vented lead  and  other  base  metals  from  being  gold. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  these  efforts 
failed.  Accordingly  modern  chemists,  taught  by 
experience  to  believe  the  required  decomposition 
impossible,  have  come  to  the  matter-of-fact  conclu- 
sion that  when  metals  are  of  different  colours,  degrees 
of  hardness,  lustre,  ductility,  fusibility,  and  so  on, 
that  they  are  of  different  natures. 

Although  the  metallic  character  be  readily  and 
popularly  recognised,  it  is  difficult  to  define  it  with 
accuracy. 

With  the  single  exception  of  quicksilver,  the 
metals  are  all  solid  at  ordinary  atmospheric  tem- 
peratures ;  but  their  most  striking  property  is  their 
lustre,  which  is  so  remarkable  as  to  be  at  once 
understood  by  the  expression,  metallic  lustre.  This 
property  belongs,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  to 
every  metal :  it  is  the  property  of  strongly  reflect- 
ing light,  and  seems  connected  with  a  certain  state 
of  aggregation  of  the  nretallic  particles.  The  same 


PROPERTIES   OF  THE   METALS.  3 

property  is  however  possessed,  at  least  superficially, 
in  a  minor  degree,  by  mica,  animal  charcoal, 
silenium,  and  polished  indigo — bodies  not  at  all 
metallic. 

In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  power  of  the 
metals  to  reflect  light,  they  are  no  less  remarkable 
for  their  opacity  than  their  lustre.  Thus,  silver- 
leaf,  only  one  hundred-thousandth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  is  perfectly  opaque;  and  leaves  of  other 
metals,  in  general,  allow  no  light  to  pass  through 
their  substance.  Yet  gold-leaf,  of  the  two  hundred- 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  would  seem, 
as  observed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  to  transmit  green 
rays  of  light;  and  it  is  probable  that,  could  we 
obtain  films  of  other  metals  of  equal  thinness,  they 
would  be  found  to  allow  certain  rays  to  pass  through 
them.  The  fact,  as  observed  with  gold,  has  how- 
ever been  ascribed  to  the  porosity  of  the  mefcal,  the 
rays  transmitted  passing  through  an  infinite  number 
of  minute  fissures  in  the  thin  leaf.  This,  it  must 
be  admitted,  is  quite  compatible  with  perfect  opacity 
of  the  substance  of  the  metal ;  the  leaf,  like  a  piece 
of  wire  gauze,  allowing  the  light  to  pass  only  through 
its  interstices,  and  not  through  the  solid  metal  itself, 
which  may  be  perfectly  impervious  to  all  luminous 
rays. 


4  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

The  polished  metals  are  imperfect  radiators  and 
receivers  of  heat,  but  they  are  excellent  reflectors, 
both  of  light  and  heat :  hence  their  peculiar  fitness 
for  the  construction  of  mirrors.  They  are  also,  in 
general,  excellent  conductors  of  heat,  and  most  of 
them  also  of  electricity,  though  probably  not  all. 
The  greater  number  of  them  are  susceptible  of 
assuming  the  crystalline  form.  With  several  of 
them  this  may  be  effected  by  fusion  and  slow 
cooling.  Thus,  by  suffering  the  melted  metal  in 
a  crucible  slowly  to  concrete  externally,  and  then 
perforating  the  solid  crust,  and  pouring  out  the 
liquid  interior,  the  cavity  so  formed  will  be  foun<? 
lined  with  crystals. 

When  a  metal  is  precipitated  by  another,  it  is 
often  deposited  in  a  crystalline  state.  Thus,  if  a 
little  mercury  be  thrown  into  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  (lunar  camstic),  the  silver  is  precipitated  in 
beautiful  crystals.  The  same  phenomenon  occurs, 
when  a  bit  of  zinc  is  suspended  in  a  salt  of  lead. 
In  like  manner,  if  a  stick  of  phosphorus  be  immersed 
in  a  silver  solution,  it  becomes  incrusted  with  beau- 
tiful metallic  crystals,  which  after  some  time  per- 
fectly encase  the  phosphorus.  Gold  is  also  some- 
times deposited  in  crystals  from  its  ether  solutions ; 
and  during  the  decomposition  of  several  of  the 


PROPERTIES   OP   THE   METALS.  O 

metallic  solutions,  by  galvanic  electricity,  especially 
when  low  powers  are  employed,  beautiful  metallic 
crystals  are  often  obtained.  This  is  readily  verified 
with  solutions  of  copper  and  silver  salts. 

The  metals  possess,  in  different  degrees,  a  pecu 
liar  tenacity,  which,  in  its  greatest  perfection,  ren- 
ders them  malleable  and  ductile — that  is,  capable 
of  being  extended  under  the  hammer,  and  drawn 
into  wire — properties  which  belong  to  no  other 
species  of  matter.  Thus,  gold  and  silver  may  be 
beaten  into  leaves  almost  inconceivably  thin ;  cop- 
per, tin,  platinum,  and  lead,  possess  the  same  pro 
perty,  but  less  perfectly ;  others  are  entirely  desti- 
tute of  it,  as  arsenic,  antimony,  and  cobalt.  These 
last  can  indeed  be  readily  reduced  to  fine  powder, 
and  hence  they  are  distinguished  as  brittle  metals. 

Those  metals  which  are  malleable  are  also  ductile , 
these  properties  are  analogous,  but  do  not  appear 
to  bear  a  uniform  relation  to  each  other,  among  the 
metals  possessing  them.  Gold  and  silver  are,  how- 
ever, the  most  ductile,  as  they  are  the  most  malle- 
able. Thus,  a  grain  of  gold  may  be  extended  by 
hammering,  so  as  to  cover  fifty-two  square  inches  of 
surface,  or  it  may  be  drawn  into  500  feet  of  wire, 
and  by  enveloping  it  in  silver,  it  may  be  extended  to 
700  fer't.  In  like  manner,  platinum,  which  is  in- 


6 


BKASS   AND  IRON   FOUNDEE. 


ferior  to  copper  and  tin  in  malleability,  has  been 
drawn  into  wire  not  more  than  the  ^Jsoth  of  an 
inch  diameter — a  degree  of  fineness,  which,  except 
under  certain  circumstances  of  illumination,  is  in- 
visible. Iron  may  be  drawn  into  wire  as  fine  as  the 
human  hair ;  copper  is  less  ductile,  and  zinc,  tin, 
and  lead,  can  be  drawn  into  wire,  but  considerably 
less  fine.  The  brittle  metals,  as  might  be  supposed, 
do  not  draw. 

The  following  table  shows  the  order  which  the 
metals  bear  to  one  another,  in  respect  to  these  pro- 
perties : — 

A  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  ORDER  WHICH  THE  METALS  BEAR  TO  ONI 
ANOTHER  IN  RESPECT  TO  THEIR  PROPERTIES  : — 


Order  of  Mai  li- 
ability. 

Order  of  Ductility. 

Order  of  Tenacity. 

Order  of  Brittie- 
ness. 

Qold, 

Gold, 

Iron  .  .1000 

Antimony, 

Silver, 

Silver, 

Copper     550 

Arsenic, 

Copper, 

Platinum, 

Platinum  494 

Bismuth, 

Tin,       ^ 

Iron, 

Silver  .  .  349 

Cerium, 

Cadmium, 

Copper, 

Gold    .  .  273 

Chromium, 

Platinum, 

Zinc, 

Zinc    .     199 

Cobalt, 

,  Lead, 

Tin,               j'  Tin  ...    63 

Columbium, 

Zinc, 

Lead, 

Lead   .  .    50 

Manganese, 

Iron, 

Nickel, 

Molybdenum, 

Nickel, 

Palladium, 

Iron  wire  1-  tenth  lu. 

Tellurium, 

Palladium, 

Cadmium, 

diameter  is  capable 

of  sustaining  5001bs. 

Titanium, 

Potassium, 

avoirdupois. 

Tungsten, 

Sodium, 

Uranium, 

Solid  mercury, 

Rhodium. 

are  scratched  by  calc-spar. 


PROPERTIES   OF  THE  METALS.  7 

Few  of  the  metals  when  pure  are  very  hard,  and 
some  are  so  soft  as  to  yield  to  the  nail.  The  fol- 
lowing table  of  hardness  is  given  from  the  experi- 
ments of  M.  Dumas : — 

Titanium, 

Tungsten,       J>     are  harder  than  steel. 

Manganese, 

Platinum, 

Palladium, 

Copper, 

Gold, 

Silver, 

Tellurium, 

Bismuth, 

Cadmium, 

Tin, 

Chromium, 

Rhodium, 

Nickel, 

Cobalt, 

Iron, 

Antimony, 

Zinc, 

Lead  yields  to  the  nail. 

Potassium,      }  « 

>     are  soft  as  wax  at  60°. 
Sodium,          ) 

Mercury  is  liquid  above  minus  39°, 


scratch  glass. 


are  scratched  by  glass. 


8  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

In  respect  to  fusibility — that  is,  the  capability  of 
being  melted  by  heat — the  metals  differ  from  each 
other  as  widely  as  in  any  other  respect.  Thus,  mer- 
cury requires  to  be  cooled  down  to  minus  39°  before 
it  becomes  solid,  whereas  the  melting  point  of  pla- 
tinum is  somewhere  beyond  3280°.  Potassium  melts 
at  140°,  and  sodium  at  190°.  Tin  becomes  liquid 
at  444°,  bismuth  at  500°,  lead  at  600°,  zinc  at  770°, 
and  antimony  at  800°.  Silver,  gold,  and  copper, 
require  a  bright  cherry-red  heat  to  melt  them  (about 
2000°) ;  cast  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt,  a  white  heat 
(about  2800°) ;  and  manganese,  and  malleable  iron, 
the  highest  heat  of  a  smith's  forge  (about  3000°). 
The  highest  temperatures  of  our  furnaces  are  only 
sufficient  to  agglutinate  very  imperfectly  the  metals 
molybdenum,  uranium,  tungsten,  and  chromium ; 
and  titanium,  cerium,  osmium,  iridium,  rhodium, 
platinum,  and  columbium,  require  the  intense  heat 
of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe,  or  that  of  voltaic 
electricity,  to  fuse  them.  Some  of  the  metals,  when 
exposed  to  heat,  not  only  melt,  but,  obeying  the 
general  law  of  liquids,  boil  and  evaporate  when  the 
heat  is  sufficiently  high.  Thus,  mercury,  zinc,  cad- 
mium, bismuth,  tellurium,  and  antimony,  boil  and 
evaporate  at  a  red  heat ;  and,  in  a  vacuum,  mercury 
is  known  ti  evaporate  at  ordinary  atmospheric  tern 


PROPERTIES    OP   THE   METALS.  9 

peratures  (above  50°) ;  silver  and  lead .  require  a 
high  heat  to  vaporize  them ;  tin  a  still  higher  heat ; 
and  gold  will  only  evaporate  slowly  under  the  most 
intense  heat  that  can  be  applied.  Several  of  tho 
other  metals,  as  iron  and  nickel,  cannot  be  made  to 
evaporate  in  the  most  intense  heat  with  which  we 
are  acquainted.  Arsenic,  on  the  other  hand,  eva 
porates  without  melting. 

There  are  several  of  the  metals  which  emit  a  pecu- 
liar odour,  especially  when  rubbed,  or  have  their 
temperature  slightly  raised.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  with  copper,  iron,  and  tin.  The  vapour  of 
others  is  very  remarkable.  The  arsenic  vapour  has 
the  smell  of  garlic;  that  of  tellurium  smells-  like 
horseradish ;  and  osmium  takes  its  name  from  the 
smell  of  its  vapour  (osme,  odour).  Some  of  the 
metals  have  also  a  peculiar  taste  when  applied  to  the 
tongue,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  their  electrical 
condition ;  but  it  must  be  remarked  that  many  of 
the  most  oxidable  metals  are  entirely  destitute  both 
of  taste  and  odour. 

A  high  specific  gravity  was  reckoned  one  of  the 
most  marked  characteristics  of  the  metals,  till  the 
discovery  of  the  metallic  basis  of  the  alkalies  by 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy.  So  intimately  indeed  was  the 
metallic  lustre  associated  in  the  mind  with  great 


10  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDEK. 

weight,  that  when  a  piece  of  potassium  was  put,  for 
the  first  time,  into  the  hand  of  an  eminent  teacher 
of  chemistry,  in  admiring  its  perfect  metallic  cha- 
racter, he  poised  it  upon  the  finger,  and  exclaimed, 
"  How  heavy !"  and  the  prejudice  was  only  removed 
by  seeing  it  float  upon  water.  The  list  of  metals, 
however,  includes  the  densest  forms  of  matter  with 
which  we  are  acquainted ;  and,  although  great  weight 
cannot  be  regarded  as  a  universal  property,  we  have 
few  examples  in  which  the  density  is  less  than  the 
density  of  water.  These  examples  comprehend  only 
potassium  and  sodium ;  all  other  metals  are  of 
greater  specific  gravity,  up  to  platinum,  which  is 
twenty-one  times  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of 
water. 

The  degrees  of  facility  with  which  the  metals 
combine  with  oxygen  differ  widely.  Some,  by  mere 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  absorb  its  oxygen  with 
great  rapidity :  such  is  the  case  with  potassium  and 
sodium :  others  absorb  it  more  slowly,  as  manganese, 
iron,  and  arsenic ;  and  lead  and  copper  still  more 
slowly.  Others,  again,  do  not  oxidate  by  exposure 
to  air,  unless  at  a  high  temperature  ;  this  is  the  case 
with  tin,  zinc,  mercury,  antimony,  bismuth,  and 
cobalt,  which  absorb  the  oxygen  readily  when  in  a 


PROPERTIES    OF   THE   ME1ALS.  11 

state  of  fusion.  Others,  again,  do  not  oxidate  by 
exposure  to  air  and  heat,  or  bj  immersion  in  water, 
as  gold  and  platinum ;  the  same  is  nearly  true  of 
nickel  and  silver.  The  tendency  of  the  metals  to 
combine  with  oxygen  appears,  however,  to  be  greatly 
influenced  by  their  mechanical  condition ;  for  some 
of  them,  which  are  only  slowly  oxidized  by  expo- 
sure to  air  and  heat,  are  rapidly  acted  upon  when 
in  very  fine  mechanical  division,  even  at  common 
temperatures. 

In  combining  with  oxygen  under  heat,  some  of 
the  metals  burn  with  great  splendour :  this  is  exem- 
plified in  copper,  zinc,  tin,  and  bismuth.  Iron  filings, 
when  thrown  even  into  the  flame  of  a  candle,  and 
very  fine  iron  wire,  when  held  in  the  external  part 
of  the  flame,  take  fire  and  throw  off  beautiful  scin- 
tillations. Antimony  burns  at  a  white  heat,  and 
tellurium  burns  before  the  flame  of  the  blow-pipe. 
In  short,  at  intense  heats  most  of  the  metals  may 
be  burned,  and,  if  placed  in  the  flame  of  the  oxy- 
hydrogen  blow-pipe,  they  deflagrate  with  intense 
brilliancy  and  great  facility. 

On  the  other  hand,  potassium  burns  by  contact 
with  a  piece  of  ice,  with  as  much  intensity  as  others 
do  in  the  oxy-hydrogen  flame. 


12  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

The  metals,  by  combination  with  oxygen,  lose 
their  metallic  characters,  and  form  an  important 
series  of  definite  compounds  known  as  the  metallic 
oxides.  These  have  very  different  characters  and  pro- 
perties ;  even  the  same  metal  not  unfrequently  affords 
oxides  which  differ  from  each  other  widely  in  pro- 
perties and  appearance.  Thus  fifty  parts  of  mercury, 
combining  with  one  part  of  oxygen,  produces  a  black 
oxide,  and  with  two  parts  of  oxygen,  the  oxide  is 
red  and  highly  poisonous.  Many  of  the  metals 
thus  afford  more  than  one  oxide ;  and  it  is  to  be 
observed,  that  when  the  same  metal  unites  in  more 
than  one  proportion  with  oxygen,  the  oxygen  in  the 
second  and  higher  oxides  bears  a  definite  arith- 
metical relation  to  the  first ;  and  when  two  oxides 
are  thus  formed,  that  having  the  minimum  of  oxy- 
gen is  termed  the  protoxide,  and  that  with  the 
maximum  of  oxygen  the  peroxide.  This  law  of 
definite  proportions  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

Among  the  combinations  of  metals  with  oxygen, 
some  are  soluble  in  water  and  alkaline,  such  as  the 
fixed  alkalies,  soda,  potash,  and  lithia,  and  the 
alkaline  earths;  others  are  soluble  and  sour,  form- 
ing the  metallic  acids.  Some  are  insoluble  in  water, 
and  have  neither  taste  nor  smell ;  and  many  when 


PROPERTIES  OP  THE  METALS.         13 

taken  into  the  stomach  act  as  poisons.  Thus,  oxide 
of  arsenic  is  a  notorious  and  virulent  poison  ;  oxide 
of  copper  is  less  virulent  than  arsenic;  oxide  of 
lead  is  a  painful  poison;  oxide  of  nickel  is  also 
destructive  of  life;  and  the  peroxide  of  mercury, 
unless  in  small  quantities,  is  likewise  poisonous. 


14  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


ON    METALLIC   ALLOYS. 

THE  metals,  for  the  most  part,  may  be  combined 
with  each  other,  forming  a  most  important  class  of 
compounds,  known  as  the  metallic  alloys.  Many 
of  these  are  more  useful  than  the  metals  of  which 
they  are  composed,  and  possess  properties  a  good 
deal  different  from-  their  elements.  One  of  the  best 
known  and  most  serviceable  of  all  the  alloys  is  brass, 
i  compound  of  zinc  and  copper :  it  is  harder,  more 
asily  melted,  more  close  in  the  texture,  better 
;oloured,  and  less  liable  to  tarnish  than  copper ;  it 
is  less  brittle,  and  in  every  way  more  valuable  than 
zinc.  Pinchbeck  is  composed  of  the  same  ingre- 
dients as  brass,  but  in  different  proportions,  the 
zinc  predominating.  Copper  and  tin  are  two  very 
soft  and  flexible  metals,  which,  being  fused  together, 
form  the  alloy  known  as  bell-metal,  which  is  harder 
than  iron,  very  brittle,  and  very  sonorous.  The 
same  materials,  in  different  proportions,  form  spe- 
culum metal,  and  the  kind  of  ordnance  improperly 
called  brass  cannon.  Pewter  is  composed  of  tin 
and  lead,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  zinc,  cop- 
per, or  bismuth. 


ON  METALLIC   ALLOYS.  15 

Plates  upon  which  music  is  stamped  are  composed 
of  tin  and  antimony ;  and  printing  types  are  formed 
of  an  alloy  of  lead  and  antimony,  with  a  slight  ad- 
dition of  bismuth.  Tin-foil  is  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
lead ;  and  plumbers'  solder  is  composed  of  the  same 
metals.  Fusible  metal  is  a  compound  of  bismuth, 
lead,  and  tin,  with  sometimes  a  little  mercury. 

An  amalgam  of  zinc  and  mercury  is  used  for  ex- 
citing electric  machines,  and  that  of  mercury  and 
tin  is  the  compound  employed  for  silvering  looking- 
glasses.  Gold  coin  is  an  alloy  of  gold  and  copper, 
in  the  proportion  of  11  to  1 ;  and  jewellers'  gold  is 
an  alloy  of  the  same  metals  in  the  proportion  of  3  of 
gold  to  1  of  copper.  Green  gold  has  silver  instead 
of  copper.  Silver  coin,  in  like  manner,  is  an  alloy 
of  silver  and  copper  in  the  proportion  of  37  to  3. 
These  alloys  of  gold  and  silver  are  harder,  and 
consequently  less  liable  to  wear  than  the  pure 
metals. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in  the  formation  of 
alloys,  the  metals  in  the  act  of  combination  gene- 
rally evolve  heat.  For  instance,  when  platinum  and 
tin-foil  are  fused  together,  there  is  the  most  vivid 
ignition  ;  and  when  zinc  and  copper  are  suddenly 
mixed,  in  the  proportion  to  form  brass,  the  increase 
of  heat  is  such  as  to  vaporize  part  of  the  metal. 


16  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

The  alloys  are  formed  by  various  processes,  de- 
pending upon  the  nature  of  the  metals  employed. 
Most  of  them  are  prepared  by  simply  fusing  the 
two  metals  together ;  but  if  there  be  a  considerable 
difference  in  their  specific  gravities,  the  heavier 
very  generally  subsides,  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
mass  thus  differs  in  composition  from  the  upper. 
This  may  be  in  a  great  measure  prevented  by  agi- 
tating the  alloy  till  it  solidifies,  but  this  is  not 
always  convenient.  Thus,  in  stereotype  plates 
which  are  cast  vertically,  the  upper  side  usually 
contains  more  antimony  than  the  other.  The  same 
is  observed  when  an  alloy  of  gold  and  copper  is  cast 
into  bars ;  the  mould  being  placed  perpendicularly, 
the  upper  part  of  the  bar  contains  more  copper  than 
the  lower.  Copper  and  silver  evince  the  same  ten- 
dency to  separate;  although  they  appear  readily  to 
combine,  it  is  found  extremely  difficult  to  form  a 
bar  of  their  alloy  of  perfectly  uniform  composition 
throughout.  Many  of  the  alloys,  however,  appear 
to  be  true  chemical  compounds ;  and  in  some  cases 
the  metals  unite  in  i  infinite  proportions  only. 

It  is  indeed  not  impi  obable  that  wherever  metals 
do  form  alloys,  that  the  alloys  so  formed  are  definite 
compounds,  and  that  any  undue  quantity  of  either 
metal  present,  simply  mixes  mechanically  with  the 


ON    METALLIC    ALLOYS.  17 

mass.  Thus,  among  the  artificial  as  well  as  natural 
alloys,  there  are  many  which  crystallize ;  and  in 
some  cases,  the  true  compound  may  be  separated 
from  the  mere  mixture  of  the  superfluous  metal  by 
the  process  of  crystallization. 

The  tendency  of  the  metals  to  unite  with  other 
elements,  and  with  each  other,  prevents  their  being 
often  found  disseminated  in  mineral  nature,  in  their 
pure  metallic  state. 

Some  of  them  do  occur  so  nearly  pure  as  to  be 
called  native  metals.  Thus  gold  is  found  only 
slightly  alloyed  with  silver  and  copper,  and  pla- 
tinum occurs  as  an  alloy  of  iron,  palladium,  iridium, 
rhodium,  and  osmium.  Silver,  copper,  mercury, 
antimony,  bismuth,  arsenic,  and  tellurium,  occur 
both  in  the  native  metallic  state,  although  never 
absolutely  pure,  and  mineralized  with  other  bodies. 
Lead,  tin,  zinc,  iron,  antimony,  and  several  others, 
are  extensively  disseminated  as  sulphurets,  that  is, 
combined  or  mineralized  by  sulphur. 

The  combination  of  a  metal  with  its  mineralizing 
substance,  is  what  we  denominate  an  ore;  and  it  is  in 
this  state  of  ore  that  metals  occur,  when  they  are  not 
found  native.  The  ores  are  exceedingly  diversified 
in  appearance;  sometimes  they  possess  metallic 


18  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

lustre ;  sometimes  they  appear  stony,  at  other  times 
earthy.  In  some  instances  they  are  crystallized 
into  regular  forms,  but  more  commonly  they  occur 
in  shapeless  masses.  The  ores  are  chiefly  found  in 
veins — that  is,  large  fissures  of  rock,  especially  the 
granitic,  schistous,  and  limestone  rocks;  but  some- 
times they  are  found  in  rounded  and  detached  frag- 
ments, disseminated  through  certain  alluvial  and 
diluvial  strata  of  the  earth.  The  extraction  of  the 
metal  from  them  is  denominated  their  reduction. 
and  implies  a  laborious  series  of  operations,  me- 
chanical and  chemical,  comprehended  under  the 
term  metallurgy. 


TABLE   OF   METALS. 


19 


The  following  table  contains  an  enumeration  of 
the  metals,  and  may  be  useful  for  reference.  The 
column  headed  "equivalents,"  shows  the  weight 
which  unites  with  8  oxygen  to  form  the  oxides,  and 
the  succeeding  column  contains  the  symbols  by  which 
the  metals  are  denoted  in  systematic  chemistry. 


Names  of  Metals. 

Authors,  and  nates  of 
their  Discovery. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Melting 
Points. 

Equ. 
Hyd. 

Abr. 
or 
Sym. 

Au. 

£ 

Cu. 
Hg. 
Pb. 
Sn. 
Sb. 
BL 
Z. 
Ar. 
Co 
PL 
Ni. 
Mn. 
W. 
Te. 
Mo. 
U. 
Ti. 
Cr. 
T. 
Pd. 
B. 
Ir. 
Os. 
Ce. 
K. 
Na. 
Ba. 
Sr. 
Ca. 
Cd. 
L. 
S. 
Zr. 
Al. 
GL 

y. 

Th 

«g 

Ln 

1.  Gold  (Aurtun)    .    .          1 
2.  Silver  (Argentum)  . 
3.  Iron  (Ferrum)    .    . 
4.  Copper  (Giiprum)    . 
6.  Mercury  (Hydrargyrum) 
6.  Lead  (Plumbum)    . 
7.  Tin  (Stannum)    .    . 
8.  Antimony  (Stibium) 
9.  Bismuth     

Known  to  the 
ancients. 

Basil  Valentine  1490 
Agricola   .        1530 
Paracelsus?       1530 

Brandt     .        1733 

Wood   .    .        1741 
Cronstedt.        1751 
Gahn    .    .        1774 
imhuiart        1781 
Muller.    .        1782 
Hielm  .    .        1782 
Klaproth  .        1789 
Gregor.    .        1791 
Vauquelin        1797 
Hatchett  .        1802 

Wollaston     .    1803 

Tennant  .    .    1803 
Hisinger  .    .    1804 

Davy    .    .        1807 

Stromeyer    .    1818 
Arfswedson  .    1818 

Berzelius.    .    1824 

Wohler     .    .    1828 

Berzelius.    .    1829 
Bussy  .    .    .    1829 
Seftstrom.    .    1830 
Mosander      .    1840 

19.25 
10.47 
7.78 
\    8.89 
13.56 
11.35 
7.29 
6.70 
9.80 
7.00 
f  5.88 
\  8.53 
20.98 
8.27 
6.85 
17.60 
6.11 
7.40 
9.00 
5.30 

f  11.60 

(0.86 
0.97 

8.60 

i 

Fdhr. 
2016D 
1873 
*2800? 
1996 
—39 
612 
442 

497 
773 

2810? 
oh.bp.f 
2810? 
s.f.* 

620? 
ohbp 
ohbp 
ohbp 
ohbp 
oh)>p 

ohbp 
fohbp 
johbp 

136 
190 

442 

200 
108 
28 
64 
200 
104 
68 
65 
72 
32 
38 
30 
99 
30 
28 
100 
32 
48 
217 
24 
28 
185 
64 
62 
99 
100 
48 
40 
24 
70 
44 
20 
56 
8 
8 
33 
14 
18 
32 
60 
13 
69 
f 

10.  Zinc  

111.  Arsenic                              ) 

12.  Cobalt    ....»../ 

13.  Platinum   

14.  Nickel    .    .    . 

16.  Tungsten  (Wolfram)  . 
17.  Tellurium  ..... 

18.  Molybdenum  . 

19.  Uranium    ...         .    . 

20.  Titanium    

21.  Chromium  

22.  Columbium  (Tantalum)  . 
23.  Palladium  ,    | 

24.  Rhodium    f 

25.  Iridium  ....               \ 

26.  Osmium 

27.  Cerium  

28.  Potassium  (Kalium)    .    .} 
29.  Sodium  (Natronium)  .    .  I 
30.  Barium                              > 

31.  Strontium  1 

32.  Calcium  J 

33.  Cadmium   ....          ' 

34.  Lithium     .    . 

35.  Silicium                             > 

37   Aluminum     ....      ) 

38  Glucinum  .    .                   V 

39.  Yttrium  j 

40  Thorium     

(41.  Magnesium     

.42.  Vanadium  .... 

,48.  Lantanum  .    . 

'  Smith'*  forge. 


t  Oxy-bydrogen  blowpipe. 


20  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


ON  THE   CONDUCTING    POWERS    OF  VARIOUS    METALS 
FOR  VOLTAIC    ELECTRICITY. 

THE  researches  of  Pouillet  have  thrown  much 
light  upon  our  knowledge  of  the  conducting  powers 
of  various  bodies  for  voltaic  electricity,  and  the 
results  he  has  arrived  at  enable  him  to  express  the 
relative  conducting  powers  of  the  different  metals 
by  the  following  numbers : — 

Palladium       .         .         .       :.  'g  .         5791 

Silver     .         .         .         ..       .  ;   .         5152 

Gold       ....        .  .         39T5 

Copper  .        .        *        .        .  <.        3838 

Platinum         .....  855 

Bismuth           .         .         .      •   .  .           384 

Brass  from      .         .         .         .  900  to  200 

Cast  steel  from        ...  800  to  500 

Iron        .         .         .         .     I    .  .           600 

Mercury          .         .         .  .  .         100 

The  resistance  of  metals  to  conduction  of  electri- 
city has.  been  accurately  ascertained  by  means  of 
the  degrees  of  heat  evolved  by  the  passage  of  a 
current  of  equal  intensity  through  different  metals  ; 


CONDUCTING   POWERS   OF  METALS. 


21 


the  heat  developed  in  conducting  wires  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  of  surface  of  the  positive  plate, 
no  matter  whether  the  current  emanate  from  a  sin- 
gle cell  or  a  series  of  cells.  The  following  table 
shows  the  degrees  of  heat  evolved  by  an  equal  cur- 
rent from  different  metals,  measured  by  the  pressure 
of  expanded  air  upon  a  column  of  alcohol : 


Metals. 

Heat  EyolTed. 

Resistance. 

Silver    .... 

6 

1 

Copper      .        .        .     '.  . 

6 

1 

Gold     .... 

9 

1| 

Zinc          «... 

18 

3 

Platinum 

30 

5 

Iron  

30 

5 

Tin        .... 

36 

6 

Lead 

72 

12 

Brass     .... 

18 

3 

It  is  apparent  that  the  conducting  powers  of  th# 
above  metals  are  inversely  as  these  numbers.  Sil 
ver  being  a  better  conductor  than  lead,  in  the 
ratio  of  12  to  1. 


BRASS   AND   IKON    FOUNDER. 


S-« -S  fe- 
ll If  J 

Illli 


to  j{atn  uj  uaij.ii 

nj  uaq*  'J9?T!^  sag  'aanijii.  sag  uj  noaj 

nj  nojj  jsvo  jo  UOISOJJOQ  JSI:Q  jo  aojsoaaoo  aqj 

eqi  an«3aouj  s^ony  asaq?  UY  asBaaoap  aHouv  asaq»  uy 


life  t, 

1        O  £  "£   »   °«  •  B  • 

IJSSLLJ  *  I 

1 3 


2  I 

*"   I 


ieOr-IO 


C^COT-IOieOOi 


•snoi  n{  qoni  ]  tOr-iooo(MrHt-t-t-i 
OJ«nb*  aad  'nojs  |  ^  e4  rH  eleo  ^  ed^  ed! 
-aqop  ayromui 


.  CO  rH  <N  t-;  <N  OJ  00  0>  r-(  O  00  (N 


r-l  IM  CO  Tjt  CO  O<  ?H        T-4  <N        r-KMeOCOC<liH'«i<r-l( 


'' 


0   J          OBJoadg          I  llllllcocoGooolooBHo?Sco§^3^c 


?! 

If 


S^Sg^SSSS^^SS^^SS^.^ggSo 

•^OOiCSrHOO^CO 
-.CD^COCOCO6lC^ 


id  &4  fej  N  N  N  N  NN 


o  os  oo  t-  o  us  >*  eo  <N          co  oo  co  oo  oo  co  oo 


ATOMIC  ALLOYS  OF  COPPER  AND  TIN. 


23 


p.  288. 
The 

tin.'* 
small 


Water  on  Iron,"  Trans.  Brit.  Ass.  Vol.  vJL  p 
hammered  or  compressed  after  being  cast. 

sselman's  from  Belgium  ;  and  the  tin  "grain 
ing  alloy  verified  bv  analysis. 
aning,  or  filing,  as  if  combined  with  a  very 
own  to  workers  in  metals. 


tion  of  Air  and 
t  having  been 
uption. 
he  zinc  wa 
,  and  the 
ly  in  turni 
.  +  T.,  as 


Air  a 
ng  be 
. 
c  was 
the  resu 
rning, 
is  k 


On  Acti  of 
without  havi 
re  disruption. 
tch  ;"  the  zinc 
idation, 
leasantl 
inc  to  C. 


7th  to  denote  character  of  Fracture 
C.  Vitreo-Conchoidal,  V.  Vitreous,  E. 
eability,  hardness,  and  fusibility,  are  =  1. 
note  intensity  of  shade  of  the  same  colour. 
of  the  hydrogen  scale. 
termined  by  the  method  indicated  in  report 
termined  on  prisms  of  0.25  of  an  inch  square, 
ach  prism  just  sustained  for  a  few  seconds  bef 
s  was  granulated,  and  of  the  finest  "  tough  p 
yed  in  a  peculiar  apparatus,  to  avoid  loss  by  o 
er  and  zinc,  or  of  copper  and  tin,  works  as  p 
tal—  generally  lead  is  added  to  C.  +  Z.,  and  Z 


column 
V.C 
alle 
de 


used  i 
Conch 


ous,  .  oncoa,  .. 
xima  of  ductility,  mallea 
bers  in  column  6th  den 
mic  weights  are  those  of 
cific  gravities  were  dete 
mate  cohesion  was  dete 
ven  are  those  which  eac 
per  used  in  these  alloys 
wall.  They  were  alloye 
le  binary  alloy  of  coppe 
n  of  a  third  fusibl 


A 
Fine 


, 
he  maxim 
The  numbe 
The  atomic 
The  specifi 
The  ultima 
eights  give 
The  coppe 
m  Cornwa 
o  simple 
pntion  o 


24  BRASS  AND   IRON   FOUNDER 


BEHAVIOR  OF  METALS   AND   ALLOYS   IN   MELTING  AND 
CONGEALING. 

THE  metals  are  not  all  equally  suitable  for  casting, 
their  availability  for  this  purpose  being  dependent 
on  their  behavior  in  melting,  casting  and  congealing. 

The  fusibility  of  the  metals  and  their  condition  in 
a  melted  state  have  first  to  be  considered.  Metals 
fusing  with  difficulty  (platinum,  etc.)  and  those 
which  are  too  thickly-fluid  in  a  melted  state  (white 
pig-iron)  are  not,  or  but  seldom  used  for  castings. 
The  average  temperatures — melting  points — at  which 
the  metals  liquefy  are  as  follows : 

Cast  steel melts  at 2507°   P. 

Gray  pig-iron     ...  "         2327     *' 

Copper "         1992      " 

Gold »        1992      " 

White  pig-iron  ...  "        1967      " 

Silver "        1832      " 

Zinc "        779     " 

Lead «        639     « 

Bismuth "         512.6  " 

Tin «         451.4  » 

The  melting  points  of  alloys  are,  as  a  rule,  lower 
than  those  of  their  constituent  metals. 


METALS   AND  ALLOYS.  25 

With  some  metals — for  instance  tin — the  transition 
from  a  solid  to  a  fluid  state  takes  place  suddenly, 
while  others  first  pass  into  a  pasty  state.  In  the 
first  case  the  metals  are  generally  more  thinly-fluid, 
which,  however,  is  frequently  dependent  on  foreign 
admixtures.  Phosphorus  increases  the  fluidity,  while 
sulphur  decreases  it.  The  fluidity  of  brass,  German 
silver  and  bronze  is  promoted  by  zinc.  Lead  has 
the  same  effect  upon  bronze  and  tin  alloys. 

The  more  thinly-fluid  the  metals  are,  the  more 
suitable  they  are  for  casting,  since  they  fill  the 
moulds  well  and  permit  the  manufacture  of  castings 
with  slight  cross-sections.  Castings  must,  as  a  rule, 
possess  an  accurately  prescribed  size.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  patterns  are  always  somewhat  larger 
for  the  following  reasons :  All  metals,  when  heated, 
expand,  and,  hence,  after  cooling  have  a  smaller  vol- 
ume than  in  the  heated  state.  Furthermore,  a  de- 
crease in  volume  also  takes  place  in  the  transition 
from  the  fluid  to  the  solid  state,  zinc  and  cast  iron 
alone  forming  an  exception,  they  expanding  on  con- 
gealing. But,  on  the  whole,  the  expansion  in  con- 
gealing is  not  so  great  as  the  decrease  in  volume  in 
cooling,  so  that  the  casting  will  always  be  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  pattern.  Only  with  a  few  varieties 
of  cast-iron  rich  in  graphite,  the  contraction  in  cooling 


26  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

is  compensated  by  the  expansion  in  congealing,  so 
that  the  mould  is  exactly  filled  by  the  castings. 

The  total  decrease  in  all  the  dimensions  of  the  pat- 
tern is  called  shrinkage,  and  is  supposed  to  amount 

in  cast-iron to  ......  -fa 

"  cast-steel " fa 

"  zinc " fa 

"  brass      ".....      fa 

"  gun-metal " ^ 

"  bell-metal " fa 

"  statuary-bronze  ....." fa 

"tin « T|T 

"  lead " fa 

By  taking  into  consideration  these  figures,  as  well 
as  the  absolute  weight  of  the  pattern  and  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  casting,  the  absolute  weight  of  the 
casting  can  be  readily  calculated,  provided  the  pat- 
tern corresponds  in  shape  exactly  to  the  casting,  i.  e. 
has  no  core-points.  The  following  table  shows  the 
figures  by  which  the  weight  of  the  pattern  has  to  be 
multiplied  in  order  to  calculate  beforehand  the 
weight  of  the  casting. 


METALS   AND  ALLOYS. 


27 


If  the  pattern  consists 
of 

And  the  casting  is  made  in 

Cast- 
iron. 

Brass. 

Tombac 
or 
Bronze. 

Bell- 
metal 
or 
Gun- 
metal. 

Zinc. 

Pine-wood            . 

14.00 
9.00 
9.70 
13.40 
10.20 
12.60 
12.80 
0.84 
1.00 
0.89 
0.64 
0.97 

15.80 
10.10 
10.90 
15.10 
11.50 
11.90 
14.30 
0.95 
1.13 
1.00 
0.72 
1.09 

16.60 
10.40 
11.40 
15.60 
11.90 
12.30 
14.80 
0.99 
1.17 
1.03 
1.74 
1.13 

17.10 
10.90 
11.90 
16.30 
12.40 
12.90 
15.50 
1.00 
1.22 
1.12 
0.78 
1.18 

13.50 
8.60 
9.40 
12.90 
9.80 
10.20 
12.20 
0.81 
0.96 
0.85 
0.61 
0.93 

Oak-wood         .    . 

Beech-wood          .    .    . 
Linden-wood    .... 
Pear-wood 

Birch-wood  .           . 

Alder-wood      .       . 

Brass  .               .... 

Zinc  ...            ... 

Tin  (with  J  to  ^  lead). 
Lead  or  hard  lead  .    . 
Cast-iron  .    .        ... 

Several  phenomena  appearing  in  casting,  which 
may  produce  a  very  disturbing  effect,  can  be  traced 
to  shrinkage.  Among  such  phenomena  may  be 
mentioned  the  breaking  and  cracking,  as  well  as 
warping,  of  many  castings  and  the  formation  of  cavi- 
ties in  the  castings. 

Many  machinists  and  founders  have  noticed  if  a 
piece  be  broken  from  the  rim  of  a  pulley,  that  it 
cannot  be  returned  without  forcing  the  gap  open, 
showing  that  the  rim  has  been  put  under  a  strain, 
which  caused  it  to  close  together  so  soon  as  the  piece 
was  removed. 

The  strain  here  exemplified  may  be  explained  in 
the  following  manner :  So  soon  as  the  pulley  is  cast, 


28  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

the  rim  which  is  thinnest  is  cooled  off  by  the  walls  of 
the  mould  and  sets  immediately.  The  arms,  contain- 
ing more  metal  in  a  mass,  cool  next  and  set.  The 
hub,  containing  the  most  metal  in  a  mass,  cools  last 
and  sets,  but  in  doing  so,  like  all  the  rest  of  the 
metal,  has  a  tendency  to  contract  from  its  moulded 
size.  It  is  now  easy  to  see  that  the  shrinkage  of  the 
hub  will  have  a  tendency  to  separate  itself  from  the 
arms,  or  these  from  the  rim,  hence  the  strain  upon 
the  rim  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  cause  it  to  close  to- 
gether  and  form  a  circle  of  less  diameter  than  is 
natural.  When  the  piece  is  broken  out  the  strain 
relieves  itself  by  drawing  the  rim  together.  To 
overcome  as  much  of  the  evil  of  this  strain  as  possi- 
ble, it  is  usual  to  curve  the  arms,  which  by  straight- 
ening somewhat  under  the  influence  of  the  strain, 
renders  them  less  likely  to  be  broken. 

If  a  piece  be  broken  from  a  ring  no  perceptible 
change  of  form  will  take  place,  the  piece  can  be  re- 
turned quite  readily  and  will  be  found  to  fit ;  this, 
however,  does  not  prove  that  there  is  no  strain  pres- 
ent ;  on  the  contrary,  we  will  show  that  there  is. 

When  the  ring  is  first  cast,  the  walls  of  the  mould 
cool  off  the  inner  and  outer  circumferences  immedi- 
ately, causing  them  to  set,  the  central  core  of  the 
metal  still  remaining  hot.  In  a  few  moments  more  it 


METALS   AND   ALLOYS.  29 

sets,  and  in  shrinking  exerts  two  influences,  one  to 
reduce  its  own  diameter  and  that  of  the  outer  crust 
to  which  it  is  attached  and  which  has  already  set ; 
and  the  other  to  crawl  around  in  the  direction  of  the 
circumference,  whereby,  with  reference  to  the  outer, 
there  is  a  tendency  to  close  together ;  yet,  with  ref- 
erence to  the  inner  crust  there  is  a  tendency  to  open 
outward.  Hence  if  the  ring  be  put  in  a  lathe,  and 
the  outer  crust  removed,  the  gap  will  be  noticed  to 
close  in,  increasing  in  this  tendency  as  we  near  the 
centre  of  the  ring  with  the  tool.  As  we  progress 
toward  the  inner  crust  from  the  centre,  an  .opposite 
effect  will  be  produced,  and  the  gap  will  be  noticed 
to  open.  In  a  ring  of  27  inches  diameter,  turned 
till  the  outer  crust  was  just  removed,  the  ring  closed 
together  ^  of  an  inch  in  4  inches. 

Cylinders  are  no  more  than  deep  rings,  and  the 
strains  explained  under  rings  are  also  present  here. 
The  shrinkage  strains  within  hollow,  spherical  shell 
castings  are  similar  to  those  explained  under  rings, 
they  being  no  more,  in  fact,  than  rings  continued 
about  a  central  axis.  In  the  case  of  solid  globular 
castings,  the  heart  or  central  point  within  will  usually 
be  found  hollow  or  porous,  owing  to  the  following 
causes :  The  walls  of  the  mould  cooling  off  the  outer 
surface,  causes  it  to  set  immediately ;  the  interior, 


30  BRASS   AND   IRON  FOUNDER. 

cooling  from  the  exterior  inward,  endeavors  to  shrink 
away  from  the  outer  crust,  which  resists  its  so  doing ; 
hence,  the  interior  is  kept  to  a  greater  diameter  than 
is  natural,  and,  there  being  but  so  much  metal  in  the 
entire  mass,  the  atoms  are  drawn  away  from  the  cen- 
tral point  toward  all  directions  to  supply  the  demand 
made  by  the  metal  in  shrinking. 

The  general  laws  regarding  shrinkages  are  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Alfred  E.  Watkins  as  follows:  The 
most  metal  in  a  mass  always  shrinks  last ;  hence,  if  a 
casting  be  composed  of  irregular  thickness  it  will  be 
liable  to  be  broken  by  the  forces  contained  within 
itself.  It  is,  therefore,  especially  necessary  that 
columns  and  castings,  supporting  or  resisting  great 
pressures,  should  be  so  designed  as  to  prevent  this 
great  error.  Mouldings  on  columns  are  often  so 
badly  designed  with  regard  to  this  matter,  that  the 
columns  are  excessively  weak  where  they  should  be 
strongest.  As  a  rule,  mouldings  should  seldom  be 
cast  on  a  column,  but  rather  bolted  on.  Much  of  the 
irregularity  of  flat  castings  and  those  of  irregular 
shapes  could  be  remedied  by  a  proper  attention  to 
cooling  the  castings  while  in  the  mould.  To  be  sure 
this  is  done  to  a  certain  extent,  though  few  moulders 
know  why  they  do  so.  They  know  that  by  removing 
the  sand  from  a  particular  casting  it  will  straighten 


METALS   AND  ALLOYS.  31 

in  the  shrinking.  This  is  but  the  result  of  experi- 
ence, not  of  thought  or  any  attempt  to  know  why 
they  so  act.  It  is  useful  to  know  also  that  all 
shrinkage  takes  place  while  the  casting  is  changing 
Crom  a  red  to  a  black  heat. 


32  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 


ON  FOUNDING. 

THE  general  object  of  founding  is,  to  mould  iron, 
copper,  tin,  zinc,  lead,  &c.,  &c.,  in  a  melted  state 
into  the  various  forms  required  for  the  parts  of 
machines  and  other  constructions. 

Wrought  iron  and  steel  cannot  be  properly  melted 
by  heat.  At  high  temperatures  they  drop  away  and 
spark  off,  while  the  main  body  of  the  metal  main- 
tains its  consistency,  andv^*  undergoes  rapid  oxida- 
tion, as  is  shown  by  the  scales  which  are  perpetually 
formed  on  its  surface. 

These  metals  are,  however,  in  this  condition  ren- 
dered extremely  ductile,  and  the  wrought  iron  espe- 
cially may  be  fashioned  with  facility  into  any 
required  form,  by  the  application  of  the  hammer. 
On  the  contrary,  pig  iron,  of  which  wrought  iron 
and  steel  are  preparations,  has  peculiarly  the  pro- 
perty of  liquefaction  by  heat,  and  is  therefore  well 
adapted  as  a  material  for  castings,  in  which  strength 
and  hardness  are  required. 

The  business  of  the  founder  is  therefore  to  take 
advantage  of  the  common  law,  according  to  which 
fluids  always  find  their  level.  If,  for  example,  a 
qualtity  of  water  be  poured  into  a  vessel,  however 


ON   FOUNDING.  33 

curiously  shaped,  it  first  finds  the  bottom,  and  then 
spreads  on  all  sides  as  it  rises,  filling  every  corner 
it  can  reach.  The  body  of  water  must  then  be  a 
perfect  model  in  form  of  the  interior  of  the  vessel, 
and  this  may  be  seen  by  solidifying  it  in  its  place 
by  the  application  of  cold,  and  extracting  the  body 
of  ice. 

To  mould  a  quantity  of  melted  metal  into  a 
desired  form,  two  things  are  therefore  necessary: 
first,  a  model,  or  pattern  of  the  required  form. 
Secondly,  a  substance  of  sufficient  susceptibility  and 
adhesiveness  to  receive  accurately,  and  to  retain 
impressions  of  that  pattern  made  upon  it,  against 
the  violence  of  the  liquid  metal,  when  run  into  the 
mould  which  is  thereby  formed. 


ON   BRASS   FOUNDING. 

BRASS  FOUNDING,  considered  as  a  branch  of  engi- 
neering, is  beset  with  a  host  of  empirical  rules  and 
fancies,  to  an  extent  which  naturally  surprises  the 
scientific  practician,  when  he  considers  it  with  regard 
to  the  present  calculating  and  philosophizing  age, 


84  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

Every  founder  thinks  he  possesses  the  only  true 
and  orthodox  system  of  producing  first-rate  castings, 
and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  every  one  differs  from 
his  neighbour  in  his  routine  of  practice,  without 
reflecting  that  the  process  admits  as  fully  of  a  reduc- 
tion to  scientific  rules  as  any  of  its  sister  branches 
of  the  manipulatory  art. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that  excellence 
can  never  be  attained  in  any  art  in  the  prosecution 
of  which  so  loose  a  system  is  tolerated :  guess-work 
will  ever  give  chance  results,  productive  only  of 
inconveniences  and  objections,  which  a  more  system- 
atic code  of  regulations  would  entirely  obviate.  The 
number  of  alloys  of  copper  which  come  under  the 
generic  name  of  brass,  as  has  been  shown,  amount 
to  a  numerous  family,  and  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, not  only  to  the  engineer,  but  to  artists 
generally,  involving  the  use  of  the  following  differ- 
ent metals,  all  of  which  are  required  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  to  suit  the  variety  of  operations  where 
brass  is  indispensable:  namely,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
zinc,  antimony,  and,  in  some  cases,  nickel. 

The  first  four  of  these  metals  are  those  in  the 
greatest  request  for  engineering  purposes.  The 
leading  metal  of  this  series,  copper,  was  known  to 
the  ancients  previous  to  the  discovery  of  malleable 


ON   COPPER.  35 

irony  and  was  applied  to  all  the  purposes  for  which 
the  latter  metal  alone  is  now  used. 

Although  we  find  brass  frequently  spoken  of  in 
the  Scriptures,  as  well  as  in  many  portions  of  pro- 
fane history,  yet  it  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that 
this  refers  to  copper ;  the  brass  of  the  present  day 
being  a  discovery  of  much  later  date. 


COPPER. 

THE  word  copper  is  derived  from  the  Island  of 
Cyprus,  where  it  was  first  wrought  by  the  Greeks. 
The  best  method  of  obtaining  it  pure,  where  extreme 
purity  is  an  object  of  importance,  is  to  dissolve  it 
in  nitric  acid :  the  solution  is  then  diluted,  and  a 
piece  of  iron  introduced,  upon  which  the  pure  metal 
is  precipitated,  any  adherent  particles  of  iron  being 
readily  removed  by  washing  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  Another  method  has  lately  been  discovered 
of  purifying  copper,  namely,  by  melting  100  parts 
of  it,  with  10  parts  of  copper  scales  (black  oxide), 
along  with  10  parts  of  ground  bottle-glass,  or  other 
flux.  Mr.  Lewis  Thompson,  who  received  a  gold 


36  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts,  for  this  invention, 
says  that,  after  the  copper  has  been  kept  in  fusion 
for  half  an  hour,  it  will  be  found  at  the  bottom  of 
the  crucible,  perfectly  pure,  while  the  iron,  lead, 
arsenic,  &c.,  &c.,  with  which  this  metal  is  usually 
contaminated,  will  be  oxidized  by  the  scales,  and 
will  dissolve  in  the  flux,  or  be  volatilized.  Thus  he 
has  obtained  perfectly  pure  copper  from  brass,  bell- 
metal,  gun-metal,  and  several  other  alloys,  contain- 
ing from  4  up  to  50  per  cent,  of  iron,  lead,  bismuth, 
antimony,  arsenic,  &c.  The  scales  of  copper  arf 
cheap,  being  the  product  of  every  large  manufao 
tory.  Copper  melts  at  a  white  heat,  and  by  slo-w 
cooling  may  be  crystallized.  Its  specific  gravity  if3 
9,  nearly.  It  melts  at  a  temperature  of  1996' 
Fahr. 


On  the  Reduction  of  Copper. 

THE  reduction  of  copper  ore  is  made  by  several 
consecutive  processes.  The  first  is  by  calcining  it, 
and,  when  the  ore  is  sufficiently  "  roasted"  to  oxi- 
date the  iron  which  it  contains,  it  is  melted.  The 
melted  metal  is,  after  a  time,  suffered  to  flow  into  a 
pit  filled  with  water,  by  which  it  becomes  granu- 
lated. 


ON  TIN.  37 

It  then  undergoes  further  heating,  and  what  is 
called  technically  its  slag  (or  scoria)  is  taken  off,  and 
it  is  allowed  again  to  run  off  into  water. 

After  these  processes  it  is  cast  in  sand,  when  it 
becomes  solid,  and  in  this  state  is  called  "  blistered 
copper." 

It  is  now  fit  for  what  is  called  the  refinery,  and 
undergoes  an  operation  called  refining,  or  toughen- 
ing. This  is  considered  to  be  an  operation  of  deli- 
cacy, and  requires  great  skill  and  care  in  the  work- 
men. It  is  conducted  in  a  furnace  similar  to  the 
melting  furnace,  and  the  object  is  to  thoroughly 
purify  the  metal  from  any  portions  of  oxygen,  which 
is  performed  by  adding  charcoal  to  the  copper,  while 
it  is  in  fusion,  and  stirring  it  occasionally,  till  it  19 
judged  to  be  pure. 


TIN,    OR   BEDIL   IN   THE   HEBREW. 

THE  next  metal  on  our  list  has  also  been  known 
from  the  remotest  ages.  It  is  mentioned  by  Eleazai 
the  priest  in  the  book  of  Numbers,  chapter  31st, 
verse  22d.  All  the  other  metals  supposed  to  have 


38  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

been  then  known  are  enumerated  in  the  same  pas- 
sage. Thus,  lexicographers  form  bedil,  "  to  sepa- 
rate," tin  being  a  separating  metal.  This  carries 
the  knowledge  and  use  of  tin  back  1500  years 
antecedent  to  the  commencement  of  our  era.  The 
Phoenicians  used  tin,  of  course,  in  the  erection  and 
decoration  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon.  Their  brass 
was  bronze ;  zinc  had  not  then  been  discovered. 
We  read  of  tin,  also,  having  been  got  by  the  Cartha- 
ginian navigator,  Himiles,  from  the  Scilly  Islands ; 
they  certainly  present  appearances  of  ancient  excf 
vations-  Tin  occurs,  native,  in  two  forms — as  per 
oxide,  and  as  sulphuret  of  tin  and  copper.  The  last 
is  rare ;  the  former  constitutes  the  great  source  of 
tin,  and,  in  its  native  mixed  state  with  arsenic,  cop- 
per, zinc,  and  tungsten,  is  called  "  tin-stone ;"  but, 
when  occurring  in  rounded  masses,  grains,  or  sand 
in  alluvial  soil,  is  called  stream  tin.  The  metal 
reduced  from  the  tin-stone  forms  block  tin — that 
from  the  stream  tin  forms  grain  tin. 

The  greater  part  of  the  East  Indian  tin  comes 
from  Siam,  Malacca,  and  Banca.  The  last  place  is 
an  island  near  the  south-east  coast  of  Sumatra. 
The  mines  were  discovered  in  1711 ;  in  1776  there 
were  ten  pits  which  were  worked  by  the  Chinese  on 
account  of  the  King  of  Palimbang.  One  hundred 


REDUCTION   OF   GRAIN    AND   BiOCK   TIN.          39 

and  twenty-five  pounds  cost  him  only  five  rix  dol- 
lars. The  greater  part  went  to  Alinia,  or  was  used 
in  India. 


On  the  Reduction  of  Tin,  Grain,  and  Block  Tin. 

THE  best  ore  of  tin  is  found  in  Cornwall ;  it  is 
commonly  blasted  by  gunpowder,  and  is  procured 
in  pieces  of  considerable  size,  which  are  stamped, 
by  beams  shod  with  iron,  to  powder.  It  is  then 
well  washed,  till  the  earthy  particles  are  carried 
off,  and  the  tin  is  fit  for  the  smelting-house. 

After  being  roasted  in  a  reverberatory  furnace, 
and  again  washed,  it  is  a  second  time  subjected  to 
the  furnace,  being  now  mixed  with  small  coal  and, 
in  some  cases,  with  a  small  quantity  of  limo.  The 
melted  tin  thus  produced  is  at  last  placed  in  a  small 
furnace,  and  exposed  to  a  very  gentle  heat,  when 
the  purest  portion  melts  first,  and  is  drawn  off.  This 
is  called  "  common  grain  tin."  And  the  inferior, 
which  still  contains  a  small  proportion  of  copper 
and  arsenic,  is  then  cast  into  pigs,  called  u  block 
tin." 

The  purest  tin  is  procured  from  the  stream  works 
of  Cornwall,  and  affords  from  65  to  75  per  cent,  of 
the  best  grain  tin ;  its  specific  gravity  is  about  7.5 , 


40  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

it  melts  at  a  temperature  of  442°.  Like  copjer,  it 
is  the  nucleus  of  an  immense  number  of  subsidiary 
metals,  which  it  is  our  intention  shortly  to  enter 
upon. 


ZINC. 

ZINC  is  a  metal  whose  extensive  range  of  appli- 
cation is  only  now  beginning  to  be  understood.  It 
is  found  in  the  state  of  oxide  and  sulphuret;  its 
specific  gravity  is  about  7.7;  its  fusing  point  is 
773°,  but  at  a  temperature  of  300°,  it  becomes 
extremely  malleable,  and  may  be  rolled  into  thin 
leaves,  or  drawn  into  fine  wire.  One  of  its  most 
valuable  modern  applications,  is  as  a  protective 
covering  for  iron,  being  the  best  known  substance 
for  this  purpose.  The  purifying  of  zinc  may  be 
effected  by  melting  the  impure  metal  with  lead,  in 
equal  parts,  in  a  deep  iron  pot,  stirring  them  well 
together,  skimming  off  the  impurities  as  they  rise, 
covering  the  surface  with  charcoal  to  prevent  oxi- 
dation, and  keeping  them  in  a  fused  state  for  three 
hours.  The  lead  descends  to  the  bottom  by  its 
greater  density,  and  leaves  the  zinc  above,  to  be 


ON  LEAD.  41 

drawn  off  by  a  pipe  in  the  side  of  the  melting-pot. 
This  contrivance  is  the  subject  of  a  patent,  granted 
bo  Mr.  William  Godfrey  Kneller,  in  1844. 


LEAD. 

LEAD  was  also  known  to  the  ancients.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  11.4;  melts  at  a  temperature  of  612°. 
This  metal  is  highly  poisonous,  and  the  greatest 
amount  of  caution  ought  to  be  observed  in  its  appli- 
cation to  domestic  purposes,  as,  when  in  contact 
with  water  in  open  vessels,  it  quickly  tarnishes,  and 
small  crystalline  scales  of  oxide  of  lead  are  formed, 
a  portion  of  which  dissolves  in  the  water,  and  is 
again  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  carbonate.  If, 
however,  the  water  contains  a  very  slight  amount 
of  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  soluble  sulphate,  the  corro- 
sion is  prevented. 


BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


ANTIMONY. 

ANTIMONY  was  discovered  by  Basil  Valentine  (a 
monk),  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  of  a  grayish- 
white,  having  a  slight  bluish  shade,  and  very  bril- 
liant. Its  texture  is  lamellated,  and  exhibits  plates 
crossing  each  other  in  every  direction.  Its  surface 
is  covered  with  herbarizations  and  foliage.  Its  spe 
cific  gravity  is  6.702.  It  is  sufficiently  hard  to 
scratch  all  the  soft  metals ;  it  is  very  brittle,  easily 
broken,  and  pulverizable.  It  fuses  at  810°  Fahr. ; 
it  can  be  volatilized,  and  burns  by  a  strong  heat 
When  perfectly  fused  and  suffered  to  cool  gradually, 
it  crystallizes  in  octahedra.  It  unites  with  sulphur 
and  phosphorus.  It  decomposes  water  strongly.  It 
is  soluble  in  alkaline  sulphates;  sulphuric  acid 
boiled  upon  antimony,  is  feebly  decomposed.  Nitric 
acid  dissolves  it  in  the  cold ;  muriatic  acid  scarcely 
acts  upon  it.  The  oxygenated  muriatic  gas  inflames 
it,  and  the  liquid  acid  dissolves  it  with  facility. 
Arsenic  acid  dissolves  it  by  heat  with  difficulty.  It 
unites  by  fusion  with  gold,  and  renders  it  pale  and 
brittle.  Platina,  silver,  lead,  bismuth,  nickel,  cop- 
per, arsenic,  iron,  cobalt,  tin,  and  zinc  unite  with 


ORDER   AND   WORKING   OF  METALS.  43 

antimony  by  fusion,  and  form  with  it  compounds 
more  or  less  brittle.  Mercury  does  not  alloy  with 
it  easily.  We  are  little  acquainted  with  the  action 
of  alkalies  upon  it.  Nitrate  of  potash  is  decomposed 
by  it.  It  fulminates  by  percussion  with  oxygenated 
muriate  of  potash. 


THE  order  and  facility  of  working  these  metals 
vary  considerably  with  the  purpose  to  which  they 
are  applied.  Thus,  regarding  their  wire-drawing 
ductibility,  gold  is  the  most  ductile  metal,  being  1. 
The  four  first  metals  are  as  follows :  copper  5,  zinc 
6,  tin  7,  lead  8.  Their  relative  values  as  laminable 
substances  are  considerably  different :  thus,  under 
the  same  circumstances,  copper  is  3,  tin  4,  lead  6, 
zinc  7. 

The  following  tabulated  statements  exhibit  the 
most  approved  properties  of  the  most  useful  class 
of  alloys,  as  laid  down  by  the  best  authorities,  to- 
gether with  the  specific  purposes  to  which  they  are 
adapted.  The  first  we  shall  treat  upon  are  the 
alloys  Df  copper  and  tin.  In  this  table  the  quantity 
of  tin  is  that  which  is  added  to  one  pound  of  copper. 


44  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


COPPER   AND   TIN. 

1    ounce,  Soft  gun  metal. 

1J      "      A  slightly  harder  alloy,  fit  for  ran- 
thematical  instruments. 

1}      "      Still  harder,  fit  for  wheels. 
l£  to  2         il      Brass  guns. 
2    to  2J       "      Hard  bearings  for  machinery. 

3  "      Musical  bells. 

3J      "      Chinese  gongs,  cymbals,  &c. 

4  "      Small  house  bells  for  domestic  pur- 

poses. 
4J       "      Large         do. 

5  "      Largest  bells,  for  churches,  &c. 

7    to  8         "      Speculum   metal  for  the  reflectors 
of  telescopes,  light-houses,  &c. 

Temper,  is  a  mixture  of  2  pounds  of  tin  to  1  pound 
of  copper,  and  is  used  for  adding  to  tin  in  the 
manufacture  of  pewter ;  the  object  being  tc  intro- 
duce an  extremely  small  quantity  of  copper, 


ON   BRONZE   AND   BELL   METAL.          -          45 


BRONZE   FOR   CANNON,    STATUES,    ETC. 

BRONZE  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  with  from  8  to  10 
per  cent,  of  tin,  together  with  small  quantities  of 
other  metals,  which  are  not  essential  to  the  com- 
pound. Cannons  are  cast  with  an  alloy  of  a  similar 
kind,  and  the  ancient  bronze  statues  were  of  the 
same  composition. 


ON   BELL   METAL. 

BELL  METAL  is  a  compound  of  80  parts  copper  to 
20  parts  tin.  The  Indian  gong,  so  much  celebrated 
for  the  richness  of  its  tones,  contains  copper  and  tin, 
in  the  above  proportions.  The  proportion  of  tin  in 
bell  metal  varies,  however,  from  one-third  to  one- 
fifth  of  the  weight  of  copper,  according  to  the  sound 
required,  the  size  of  the  bell,  and  the  impulse  to  be 
given.  M.  d'Arcet  has  discovered  that  bell  metal 
formed  in  the  proportion  of  78  parts  copper,  united 
with  22  of  tin,  is  indeed  nearly  as  brittle  as  glass, 
when  cast  in  a  thin  plate  or  gong.  Yet  if  it  be 


46      •  BRASS    AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

heated  to  a  cherry-red,  and  plunged  into  cold  water, 
being  held  between  two  plates  of  iron,  that  the  plate 
may  not  bend,  it  becomes  malleable.  Thus  he 
manufactures  gongs,  cymbals,  and  tantums  out  of 
this  compound. 


ON    COPPER   AND   TIN    MIXTURES. 

THE  above  are  the  best  proportions  in  use  at  the 
present  day;  for  some  other  peculiar  objects  a 
slightly  different  mixture  is  adopted,  as  a  small 
amount  of  zinc  or  silver,  and  even  arsenic.  The 
best  mode  of  mixing  the  component  metals  of  this 
alloy,  appears  to  be  to  melt  each  separately,  and 
then  to  add  the  tin  to  the  copper  at  the  lowest  stir- 
ring temperature.  To  complete  the  combination 
the  alloy  is  again  melted  very  gradually  by  placing 
the  metal  in  the  crucible  almost  as  soon  as  the  fire 
is  lighted.  The  hardness  of  this  alloy,  compared 
with  the  extreme  softness  of  the  metals,  gives  us  an 
example  of  the  chemical  changes  effected  by  their 
combination.  Thus,  the  speculum  metal,  as  used 
by  Lord  Rosse,  is  totally  devoid  of  malleability,  and 
from  its  hardness  cannot  be  acted  on  by  the  file. 


SPECULUM,  COPPER,  AND  ZINC.        47 

His  speculum  consisted  of  four  atoms  of  chemical 
combining  proportions  of  copper  to  one  of  tin  :  or, 
by  weight,  126.4  copper  to  58.9  tin.  This  alloy, 
which  is  a  true  chemical  compound,  is  of  a  brilliant 
white  lustre;  its  specific  gravity  8.811;  nearly  as 
hard  as  steel,  and  almost  as  brittle  as  sealing-wax. 
The  speculum  is  six  feet  in  diameter,  five  and  a  half 
inches  thick.  It  was  cast  open,  ground  with  emery, 
placed  on  a  table  in  a  cistern  filled  with  water  at  a 
temperature  of  55°  Fahr.,  polished  with  red  oxide 
of  iron,  procured  by  precipitation  from  green  vitriol, 
or  sulphate  of  iron,  by  water  of  ammonia. 


ALLOYS  OF  COPPER  AND  ZINC. 

WE  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  another 
branch  of  the  copper  alloy  family  of  great  value  in 
the  arts.  This  is  copper  and  zinc. 

The  following  table  contains  the  best  proportions 
of  the  principal  mixtures.  In  this  table  the  quan- 
tity of  zinc  is  that  which  is  added  to  one  pound  of 
copper. 


48  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

j  to    J    ounce.  This  addition  is  used  principally 
for  the  purpose  of  producing 
sound  copper  castings. 
1     to  1J         "       Gilding  metal  for  jewellers. 

2          "       Tombac,  or  red  brass. 
3    to  4          "       Red  sheet  brass,  pinchbeck,  and 
bath  metal. 

5  "       Purbeck  metal. 

6  "       Bristol  brass.     This   and  the  five 

preceding  mixtures  solder  well. 
7    to  7J        "       Good  dipping  metal. 

8  "       The  general  proportion  for  all  or- 

dinary brass  articles. 

10j         "       Muntz's  metal,  for  ships'  fasten- 
ings, sheathing,  &c. 
14  "       Strong  brazing  solder,  for  heavy 

copper  work,  &c. 
16          "       Soft  spelter  solder. 

From  the  volatile  nature  of  zinc  the  above  pro- 
portions can  seldom  be  strictly  adhered  to;  but  a 
slight  variation  does  not  much  affect  the  filing  and 
working  of  the  metal. 

An  alloy  of  copper  and  lead  is  often  used  in  place 
of  gun  metal  for  inferior  work,  on  account  of  its 


ON   COPPER,  ZINC,  TIN   AND   LfcAD.  49 

cheapness  and  facility  of  manipulation.     It  is  very 
brittle,  particularly  where  much  lead  is  used. 

The  whole  of  the  different  metals  just  discussed, 
when  mixed  together,  constitute  gun  metal,  or  brass, 
par  excellence.  This  alloy  is  applied  to  a  very 
great  variety  of  purposes,  and  is  the  one  most  in 
demand  for  engineering  works.  The  principal  ones 
are  compounded  as  below. 


ALLOYS  OF  COPPER,  ZINC,  TIN,  AND  LEAD. 

1 J  ounces  tin,  J  ounce  zinc,  and  16  ounces  copper, 
constitute  an  extremely  tenacious  metal,  used  where 
great  strength  is  required. 

1J  ounces  tin,  2  ounces  brass,  16  ounces  copper, 
tor  wheels,  &c. 

2  ounces  tin,  1J  ounces  brass,  16  ounces  copper, 
for  articles  requiring  turning. 

2£  ounces  tin,  1 J  ounces  brass,  16  ounces  copper, 
for  bearings,  nuts,  &c. 

1J  ounces  tin,  1J  ounces  zinc,  16  ounces  copper 
a  composition  for  general  purposes,  used  by  an  emi 
nent  engineer. 

4 


50  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

2£  ounces  tin,  £  ounce  zinc,  16  ounces  copper, 
for  bearings  to  resist  great  strains. 

2J  ounces  tin,  2J  ounces  zinc,  16  ounces  copper, 
an  extremely  hard  metal,  almost  too  hard  for  the 
file. 

1  ounce  tin,  2  ounces  zinc,  16  ounces  copper,  good 
button  metal. 

5  pounds  of  zinc  to  8  pounds  of  brass  (called  pla- 
tina),  an  extremely  pale,  nearly  white  metal,  used 
by  Birmingham  button-makers. 

9  pounds  of  zinc  to  32  pounds  of  brass,  another 
alloy,  called  Bath  metal. 

10  pounds  of  tin,  6  pounds  of  copper,  4  pounds 
of  brass,  constitute  white  solder. 

14.75  tin,  144  copper,  and  12  brass,  is  the  alloy 
of  the  English  standard  measure. 

Manheim  G-old. — 3  parts  copper,  1  part  zinc, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  tin.  If  these  metals 
are  pure,  and  melted  in  a  covered  crucible,  contain- 
ing charcoal,  the  alloy  bears  so  close  a  resemblance 
to  gold  as  to  deceive  very  skilful  persons. 

Best  Pinchbeck,  5  ounces  pure  copper,  and  1  of 
zinc. 


ALLOTS.  51 

Princess  Metal. — 3  parts  copper,  1  part  common 
brass,  and  J  ounce  zinc. 

5J  pounds  copper,  J  pound  zinc,  best  Tombac, 
beautifully  red,  and  is  more  durable  than  copper. 

Artificial  Grold. — 16  parts  virgin  platina,  7  parts 
sopper,  1  part  zinc,  put  in  a  crucible,  covered  with 
powdered  charcoal,  and  melted  till  the  whole  forms 
one  mass. 

Fine  Brazing  Solder. — 12  pounds  of  copper,  11 
pounds  of  zinc,  flux  with  powdered  brimstone. 


We  might  multiply  these  examples  of  the  differ 
ent  mixtures,  but  as  we  have  already  extended  this 
portion  of  our  article  to  a  considerable  length,  and 
have  given  what  appear  to  be  the  best  for  general 
purposes,  we  shall  defer  any  further  remarks  on  the 
subject,  until  we  come  to  white  metals,  receipts,  &c., 
at  the  latter  part  of  the  work. 


52  BRASS    AND   IKON    FOUNDER. 


HAVING  discussed  the  rationale  of  the  mixture 
and  proportion  of  the  metals  used  in  alloys  of  cop- 
per, the  matter  leads  us  to  the  further  consideration 
of  casting  them.  Brass  moulding  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  earthen,  or  sand  moulds.  The  formation 
of  sand  moulds  is  by  no  means  so  simple  an  affair 
as  it  would  at  first  sight  appear  to  be,  as  it  requires 
long  practical  experience  to  overcome  the  disadvan- 
tages attendant  upon  the  material  used.  The  mould? 
must  be  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  action 
of  the  fluid  metal  perfectly,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
must  be  so  far  pervious  to  the  air  as  to  permit  ol 
the  egress  of  the  gases  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
metal  on  the  sand.  If  the^  material  were  perfectly 
air-tight,  then  damage  would  ensue  from  the  pres 
sure  arising  from  the  rapidity  of  the  generation  of 
the  gases,  which  would  spoil  the  effect  of  the  casting, 
and  probably  do  serious  injury  to  the  operator. 

If  the  gases  are  locked  up  within  the  mould,  the 
general  result  is  what  moulders  term  a  blown  cast- 
ing ;  that  is,  its  surface  becomes  filled  with  bubbles 
of  air,  rendering  its  texture  porous  and  weak,  besides 
injuring  its  appearance. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  often  used  for  a  number  of  the 


FACING.  53 

more  fusible  metals.  This  material,  however,  will 
not  answer  for  the  more  refractory  ones,  as  the 
heat  causes  it  to  crumble  away  and  lose  its  shape. 

Sand,  mixed  with  clay  or  loam,  possesses  advan- 
tages not  to  be  found  in  gypsum,  and  is  consequently 
used  in  place  of  it,  for  brass  and  other  alloys.  In 
the  formation  of  brass  moulds,  old  damp  sand  is 
principally  used  in  preference  to  the  fresh  material, 
being  much  less  adhesive,  and  allowing  the  patterns 
to  leave  the  moulds  easier  and  cleaner. 

Meal  dust  or  flour  is  used  for  facing  the  moulds 
of  small  articles ;  but  for  larger  works,  powdered 
chalk,  wood-ashes,  &c.,  are  used,  as  being  more  eco 
nomical. 

If  particularly  fine  work  is  required,  a  facing  of 
charcoal  or  rottenstone  is  applied.  Another  plan 
for  giving  a  fine  surface  is  to  dry  the  moulds  ovei 
a  slow  fire  of  cork  shavings,  or  other  carbonaceous 
substance,  which  deposits  a  fine  thin  coating  of  car- 
bon. This,  when  good  fine  facing-sand  is  not  to  be 
obtained. 

As  regards  the  proportions  of  sand  and  loam  used 
in  the  formation  of  the  moulds,  it  is  to  be  remarked, 
that  the  greater  the  quantity  of  the  former  material, 
tlie  more  easily  will  the  gases  escape,  and  the  lesi 


54  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

likelihood  is  there  of  a  failure  of  the  casting;  en 
the  other  hand,  if  the  latter  substance  predominates, 
the  impression  of  the  pattern  will  be  better,  but  a 
far  greater  liability  of  injury  to  the  casting  will  be 
incurred  from  the  impermeable  nature  of  th*  mould- 
ing material.  This  however  may  be  got  over  with- 
out the  slightest  risk,  by  well  drying  the  mould 
prior  to  casting,  as  you  would  have  to  do  were  the 
mould  entirely  of  loam. 

For  some  works,  where  easily  fusible  metal  is 
used,  metallic  moulds  are  adopted.  Thus,  where 
great  quantities  of  one  particular  species  of  casting 
is  required,  the  metallic  mould  is  cheaper,  easier  of 
management,  and  possesses  the  advantage  of  pro- 
ducing any  number  of  exactly  similar  copies.  The 
simplest  example  which  we  can  adduce  is  the  cast- 
ing of  bullets.  These  are  cast  in  moulds  constructed 
like  scissors,  or  pliers,  the  jaws  or  nipping  portions 
being  each  hollowed  out  hemispherically,  so  that 
when  closed  a  complete  hollow  sphere  is  formed, 
having  a  small  aperture  leading  into  the  centre  of 
the  division  line,  by  which  the  molten  lead  is  poured 
in. 

Pewter  pots,  inkstands,  printing  types,  and  va- 
rious other  articles,  composed  of  the  easily  fusible 
metals,  or  their  compounds,  are  moulded  on  the 


PEWTERINQ.  65 

same  principle.  The  pewterer  generally  uses  brass 
moulds :  they  are  heated  previous  to  pouring  in  the 
metal.  In  order  to  cause  the  casting  to  leave  the 
mould  easier,  as  well  as  to  give  a  finer  face  to  the 
article,  the  mould  is  brushed  thinly  over  with  red 
ochre  and  white  of  an  egg ;  in  some  cases,  a  thin 
film  of  oil  is  used  instead. 

Many  of  the  moulds  for  this  purpose  are  extremely 
complex,  and,  being  made  in  several  pieces,  they 
require  great  care  in  fitting. 

With  these  peculiar  cases  we  have,  at  present, 
little  to  do,  and  shall  conclude  with  a  few  observa- 
tions on  the  method  of  filling  the  moulds.  The 
experienced  find  that  the  proper  time  for  pouring 
the  metal  is  indicated  by  the  wasting  of  the  zinc, 
which  gives  off  a  lambent  flame  from  the  surface  of 
the  melted  metal.  The  moment  this  is  observed, 
the  crucible  is  to  be  removed  from  the  fire,  in  order 
to  avoid  incurring  a  great  waste  of  this  volatile  sub- 
stance. The  metal  is  then  to  be  immediately  poured. 
The  best  temperature  for  pouring,  is  that  at  which 
it  will  take  the  sharpest  impression  and  yet  cool 
quickly.  If  the  metal  is  very  hot,  and  remains  long 
in  contact  with  the  mould,  what  is  called  sand-burn- 
ing takes  place,  and  the  face  of  the  casting  is  in- 
jured. 


56  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

The  founder,  then,  must  rely  on  his  own  judgment, 
as  to  what  is  the  lowest  heat  at  which  good,  sharp 
impressions  will  be  produced.  As  a  rule,  the  smallest 
and  thinnest  castings  must  be  cast  the  first  in  a 
pouring,  as  the  metal  cools  quickest  in  such  cases, 
while  the  reverse  holds  good  with  regard  to  larger 
ones. 

Complex  objects,  when  inflammable,  are  occasion- 
ally moulded  in  brass,  and  some  other  of  the  fusible 
metals,  by  an  extremely  ingenious  process ;  render- 
ing what  otherwise  would  be  a  difficult  problem  a 
comparatively  easy  matter. 

The  mould,  which  it  must  be  understood  is  to  be 
composed  of  some  inflammable  material,  is  to  be 
placed  in  the  sand-flask,  and  the  moulding  sand 
filled  in  gradually  until  the  box  is  filled  up.  When 
dry,  the  whole  is  placed  in  an  oven  sufficiently  hot 
to  reduce  the  mould  to  ashes,  which  are  easily  re- 
moved from  their  hollow,  when  the  metal  may  be 
poured  in.  In  this  way  (as  will  be  afterwards  shown) 
small  animals,  birds,  or  vegetables  may  be  cast  with 
the  greatest  facility. 

The  animal  is  to  be  placed  in  the  empty  moulding- 
box,  being  held  in  the  exact  position  required,  by 
suitable  wires  or  strings,  which  may  be  burnt  or 
removed,  previous  to  pouring  in  the  metal. 


ON   BELL  FOUNDING.  57 

Another  mode  which  appears  to  be  founded  on 
the  same  principle,  answers  perfectly  well  when  the 
original  model  is  moulded  in  wax.  The  model  is 
placed  in  the  moulding-box  in  the  manner  detailed 
in  the  last  process,  having  an  additional  piece  of 
wax  to  represent  the  runner  for  the  metal.  The 
composition  here  used  for  moulding  is  similar  to 
that  employed  by  statue  founders  in  forming  the 
cores  for  statues,  busts,  &c.,  namely,  two  parts 
brick-dust  to  one  of  plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  mixed 
with  water  and  poured  in  so  as  to  surround  the 
model  well.  The  whole  is  then  slowly  dried,  and 
when  the  mould  is  sufficiently  hardened  to  withstand 
the  effects  of  the  molten  wax,  it  is  warmed,  in  order 
to  liquify  and  pour  it  out.  When  clear  of  the  wax, 
the  mould  is  dried  and  buried  in  sand,  in  order  to 
sustain  it  against  the  action  of  the  fluid  metal. 

If  our  limits  permitted,  we  might  mention  the  de- 
tails of  numerous  other  works  in  the  founding  of 
brass.  We  must  for  the  present  content  ourselves 
with  a  brief  examination  of  one  or  two  cases  which 
come  more  or  less  within  the  province  of  the  engi- 
neer. One  of  these  is  the  founding  of  bells,  a  sub- 
ject of  considerable  interest,  as  works  of  this  kind 
are  often  of  very  considerable  magnitude,  and  de- 
mand the  skilful  attention  of  the  engineer.  Larga 


58  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

bells  are  usually  cast  in  loam  moulds,  being  swept 
up,  according  to  the  founder's  phraseology,  by 
means  of  wooden  or  metal  patterns,  whose  contour 
is  an  exact  representation  of  the  inner  and  outer 
surfaces  of  the  intended  bell.  Sometimes,  indeed, 
the  whole  exterior  of  the  bell  is  moulded  in  wax, 
which  serves  as  a  model  to  form  the  impression  in 
the  sand,  the  wax  being  melted  out  previous  to 
pouring  in  the  metal.  This  plan  is  rarely  pursued, 
and  is  only  feasible  when  the  casting  is  small. 

The  inscriptions,  ornaments,  scrolls,  &c.,  usually 
found  on  bells,  are  put  on  the  clay  mould  separately, 
being  moulded  in  wax  or  clay,  and  stuck  on  while 
soft.  The  same  plan  is  pursued  with  regard  to  the 
<iars,  or  supporting  lugs,  by  which  the  bell  is  hung. 


BRASS   GUNS 

ARE  another  important  branch  of  this  manufac- 
ture. They  are  moulded  in  a  manner  quite  distinct 
from  any  other  work  of  this  nature.  The  exterior 
surface  of  the  gun  is  produced  by  wrapping  gaskin 
or  soft  rope  round  a  tapered  rod,  of  a  length  slightly 


ON   GUN   FOUNDING.  59 

greater  than  that  of  the  gun.  Upon  this  foundation 
of  rope  the  moulding  loam  is  then  applied ;  the 
surface  being  turned  to  the  exact  shape  and  propor- 
tions of  the  gun. 

A  long  fire  is  used  by  the  founder  in  this  process, 
in  order  to  dry  the  mould  as  he  proceeds  in  its 
manufacture.  When  perfectly  dry,  the  surface  of 
the  mould  is  black-washed  over,  and  again  covered 
with  loam  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  This 
exterior  coat  of  loam  is  secured  and  strengthened 
by  a  number  of  iron  bands,  and  the  whole  is  well 
dried.  The  primary  mould  is  now  completely  with- 
drawn from  the  outer  shell,  the  formation  of  which 
renders  it  an  easy  matter,  as  the  timber  rod  leaves 
the  rope  with  great  facility,  when  the  latter  may 
be  withdrawn,  and  the  clay  covering  picked  out 
afterwards. 

Tne  trunnions  of  the  gun  are  formed  separately, 
and  attached  to  the  shell  in  the  ordinary  way. 
When  finished,  the  moulds  are  sunk  perpendicu- 
larly in  a  sand  pit,  near  a  reverberatory  furnace,  a 
vertical  runner  being  made,  leading  to  each  mould, 
which  it  enters  near  the  bottom.  A  suitable  chan- 
nel communicates  with  the  furnace  containing  the 
brass  intended  for  the  guns.  The  metal  being  in- 


60  BRASS   AND  IRON    FOUNDER. 

troduc«?d  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  no  air  can 
possibly  be  detained  by  its  entrance,  as  each  mould 
is  full  open  to  the  atmosphere  at  the  top. 


FIGURE   CASTING 

Is  another  branch  of  our  subject,  and  one  which, 
from  its  general  complexity,  ranks  as  the  greatest 
effort  of  the  founder.  As  an  example  of  this  pro- 
cess we  shall  take  the  moulding  of  thin  ornaments 
in  relief. 

The  ornament,  whatever  it  may  be,  a  monumental 
bas-relief  for  instance,  is  first  modelled  in  relief,  in 
clay  or  wax,  upon  a  flat  surface.  A  sand  flask  is 
then  placed  upon  the  board,  over  the  model,  and 
well  rammed  with  sand,  which  thus  takes  the  im- 
press of  the  model  on  its  lower  surface.  A  second 
flask  is  now  laid  on  the  sunken  impression,  and  also 
filled  with  sand,  in  order  to  take  the  relief  impres- 
sion from  it.  This  is  generally  termed  the  cope,  or 
back  mould.  The  thickness  of  the  intended  cast  is 
then  determined  by  placing  an  edging  of  clay  round 
the  lower  flask,  upon  which  edging  the  upper  one 
rests,  thus  keeping  the  two  surfaces  at  the  precise 


ON    FIGURE   CASTING.  t)l 

distance  from  each  other,  that  it  is  intended  the 
thickness  of  the  casting  shall  be. 

In  this  process,  the  metal  is  economised  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent,  as  the  interior  surface,  or 
back  of  the  casting,  is  an  exact  representation  of 
the  relief  of  the  subject ;  and  the  whole  is  thus  made 
as  thin  in  every  part  as  the  strength  of  the  metal 
permits. 

Several  modifications  of  the  process  just  described 
are  also  made  use  of,  to  suit  the  particular  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  What  we  have  said,  however, 
is  a  detail  of  the  principle  pursued  in  all  matters  of 
a  similar  nature.  In  conclusion  we  will  give  a  com- 
position for  cores  that  may  be  required  for  difficult 
jobs,  where  it  would  be  extremely  expensive  to  make 
a  core-box  for  the  same  : — 

Make  a  pattern  (of  any  material  that  will  stand 
moulding  from)  like  unto  the  core  required.  Take 
a  mould  from  the  same  in  the  sand,  in  the  ordinary 
way  ;  place  strengthening  wires  from  point  to  point, 
centrally ;  gate  and  close  your  flask.  Then  make  a 
composition  of  two  parts  brick-dust  and  one  part 
plaster  of  Paris ;  mix  with  water  and  cast.  Take  it 
out  when  set,  dry  it,  and  place  it  in  your  mould 
warm,  so  that  there  may  be  no  cold  air  in  it. 


62  BRASS   AND   IRON   POUNDER. 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS. 

THE  term  malleable  iron  castings  means  an  iron 
that  has  been  cast  into  any  desired  shape,  and  then 
rendered  malleable  by  removing  the  carbon  by  a 
process  of  annealing,  which  consists  in  burning  off 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  carbon  combined  with  the 
iron  from  which  the  castings  were  made.  In  the 
manufacture  of  malleable,  iron  castings,  the  first  ob- 
ject is  to  get  the  proper  kind  of  pig-iron,  for  all  iron 
is  not  suitable  for  making  malleable  iron  by  the  pro- 
cess of  annealing.  From  the  states  in  which  carbon 
exists  in  cast-iron,  the  latter  has  been  classified  into 
three  principal  subdivisions.  The  first  is  "grey 
metal,"  or  "No.  1  foundry  pig,"  in  which  the  car- 
bon is  not  combined  with  the  iron,  but  is  in  the 
graphitic  state,  and  may  be  seen  in  large  flakes 
when  the  iron  is  broken.  These  flakes  are  some- 
times called  "tissue"  and  "black-lead."  The  sec- 
ond division  is  "mottled"  cast-iron.  In  this  the 
carbon  is  partly  combined  with  the  iron  and  partly  in 
the  graphitic  state,  which  gives  the  iron  a  spotted  or 
mottled  appearance.  The  third  division  is  "white  " 
cast-iron.  In  this  the  carbon  is  combined  with  the 
iron,  and  is  unseen. 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS.         63 

Gray  or  No.  1  foundry  iron  is  best  for  ordinary 
•sastings,  because  it  contains  the  most  carbon,  and  is 
softer  and  will  remain  fluid  longer  than  either  the 
mottled  or  white  iron,  yet  it  is  not  best  for  malle- 
able castings,  for  the  carbon  in  it  is  not  combined 
with  the  iron,  and  in  converting  the  castings  into 
malleable  iron  the  carbon  is  extracted  from  the  iron 
without  melting  the  castings.  If  this  class  of  iron  is 
used  the  castings  will  be  full  of  small  holes  after  they 
have  been  rendered  malleable,  and  will  not  have  the 
required  strength. 

White  cast-iron  will  make  the  best  malleable  cast- 
ings, because  in  this  the  carbon  is  completely  com- 
bined with  the  iron,  and  when  it  is  abstracted  from 
it  by  the  annealing  process,  it  leaves  a  perfectly 
sound  and  smooth  casting.  But  in  using  this  iron 
for  malleable  castings  another  trouble  arises.  The 
iron  contains  so  little  carbon  that  it  will  not  retain  its 
fluidity  long  enough  to  be  run  into  light  castings — 
and  almost  all  malleable  castings  are  very  light — so 
that  this  class  of  iron  cannot  be  used. 

As  the  gray  or  No.  1  foundry  iron  contains  too 
much  carbon  and  the  white  iron  too  little  carbon,  the 
best  iron  for  malleable  castings  musjl  be  the  mottled 
iron,  which  is  between  the  two  extremes.  This  iron 
is  always  used  for  malleable  iron  castings,  and  none 


64  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER 

but  the  very  best  brands  of  cold-blast  charcoal 
mottled  iron  will  produce  a  good  malleable  casting. 

Iron  for  malleable  castings  may  be  melted  in  a 
cupola  or  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  However,  the 
iron  melted  in  the  latter  always  produces  by  far  the 
best  castings ;  for  the  iron  is  not  melted  in  contact 
with  the  fuel,  as  in  the  cupola,  and  is  not  deterio- 
rated by  the  impurities  contained  in  the  fuel.  There 
is  also  the  advantage  that,  should  the  iron  contain 
too  much  carbon,  part  of  it  may  be  removed  by  the 
oxidizing  action  of  the  flame. 

As  most  malleable  castings  are  very  small,  they 
are  generally  moulded  in  snap-flasks,  with  green  sand, 
from  metallic  patterns  or  match  plates.  The  cast- 
ings, before  they  are  annealed,  are  as  hard  and 
brittle  as  glass,  and  must  be  handled  with  care  to 
prevent  breaking.  These  castings  are  put  into  a 
tumbler  or  rattle-barrel,  where  they  are  cleansed 
from  all  adhering  sand,  and  become  polished  by 
mutual  friction.  To  anneal  thtm  properly,  it  is  very 
essential  that  they  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed. 
The  cleansed  castings  intended  for  conversion  into 
malleable  iron  are  next  packed  into  iron  boxes,  with 
alternate  layers  of  fine  iron  scales  from  rolling-mills. 
The  boxes  are  then  closed  at  the  top  by  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  clay,  and  all  the  cracks  are  carefully 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS.         65 

luted,  to  prevent  the  admission  of  air.  The  boxes 
are  next  put  into  the  annealing  oven,  where  they  are 
subjected  to  a  white  heat,  not  sufficiently  hot,  how- 
ever, to  melt  the  boxes.  They  are  kept  at  this  heat 
for  a  week  or  more,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  off 
gradually,  After  the  castings  have  been  properly 
annealed,  they  are  covered  with  a  film  of  oxide  of 
different  colors,  and  resemble  in  appearance  that  kind 
of  iron  ore  called  peacock  ore.  These  various  colors 
are  a  sign  of  good  malleables.  This  adherent  oxide 
is  removed  from  the  castings  by  another  passage 
through  the  rattle-barrel,  and  the  process  of  malleable 
iron  making  is  finished. 

Powdered  iron  ore  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of 
iron  scales,  but  it  is  not  so  good,  for  it  contains  more 
or  less  silica  and  earth,  which,  at  the  temperature  of 
the  annealing  oven,  will  fuse  and  form  a  slag  or  cin- 
der, and  prevent  the  oxidizing  action  on  the  castings. 
For  this  reason,  scales  are  to  be  preferred,  and  care 
should  always  be  taken  to  keep  them  as  free  from 
earthy  matter  as  possible.  In  every  "heat"  or  an- 
nealing operation,  the  scales  part  with  some  of  their 
oxidizing  properties,  and  before  they  are  again  used 
they  must  be  pickled  and  reoxidized.  This  is  done 
by  wetting  them  with  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac  and 
water,  and  mixing  and  drying  them  until  they  are 
5 


66  BRASS   AND   IRON  FOUNDER. 

.thoroughly  rusted,  when  they  are  again  ready  for  use. 
The  annealing  boxes  were  formerly  made  of  soft 
iron,  but  at  present  they  are  mostly  made  of  hard 
iron — the  same  as  the  castings  are  made  of.  The 
hard  iron  boxes  become  annealed  the  same  as  the 
castings,  and  will  last  longer  than  the  soft  iron  boxes. 
These  boxes  are  generally  made  about  20  inches 
long  by  14  inches  wide  and  14  inches  deep.  They 
are  set  one  on  top  of  another  in  the  annealing  oven, 
but  never  more  than  two  high.  The  lower  one  has 
a  bottom  cast  in  it,  but  the  top  one  has  no  bottom, 
and  is  merely  a  frame  set  on  the  lower  box.  Thes6 
boxes  only  last  a  few  heats,  and  the  smaller  boxes 
are  said  to  last  longer  than  the  larger  ones. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  annealing  ovens 
in  use,  and  some  very  important  improvements  have 
been  made  in  their  construction  in  the  last  few  years. 
The  best  in  use  at  the  present  time  is  one  with  a  fire 
on  each  side  of  it,  and  so  arranged  that  the  flame 
from  the  fuel  does  not  enter  the  oven  or  strike  the 
boxes.  This  oven  is  not  allowed  to  cool  off,  but  is 
kept  hot  all  the  time.  At  one  end  there  is  a  door 
through  which  the  annealing  boxes  are  retioved 
while  at  a  white  heat,  and  are  replaced  by  cold  ones. 
The  door  is  then  closed,  and  the  boxes  heated  to  the 
required  degree.  This  kind  of  oven  is  most  econo« 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS .         67 

mical  in  use,  for  it  requires  less  fuel  than  any  other, 
and  is  not  injured  by  expansion  and  contraction  in 
cooling  and  reheating,  as  the  other  ovens  are.  When 
annealing  the  castings  *n  the  oven,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  have  the  temperature  of  the  oven  .too 
high,  nor  the  heat  too  prolonged,  or  the  castings  may 
be  burned  and  hardened  after  they  have  been  soft- 
ened. After  the  castings  have  been  thoroughly  de- 
carbonized by  annealing  in  the  oven,  they  are  virtu- 
ally a  commercially  pure  iron,  and  are  the  same  as 
wrought-iron  without  fibre,  and  fibre  may  be  im- 
parted to  them  by  rolling  or  hammering.  Yet  these 
castings  without  fibre  are  sometimes  equal  to  the 
best  wrought  iron  for  strength,  and  may  be  bent 
double  when  cold  without  breaking  them. 

The  process  is  conveniently  applicable  only  to 
small  castings,  although  pieces  of  considerable  size 
are  sometimes  thus  treated.  Handles,  latches,  and 
other  similar  articles,  cheap  harness-mountings, 
ploughshares,  iron  handles  for  tools,  wheels,  and  pin- 
ions, and  many  small  parts  of  machinery,  are  made 
of  malleable  cast-iron.  For  such  pieces  charcoal 
.cast-iron  of  the  best  quality  should  be  selected,  in 
order  to  ensure  the  greatest  possible  purity  in  the 
malleable  product.  The  castings  are  made  in  the 
usual  way,  and  are  then  imbedded  in  oxide  of  iron — 


68  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

in  the  form,  usually,  of  hematite  ore — or  in  peroxide 
of  manganese,  and  exposed  to  the  temperature  of  a 
full  red  heat  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  ensure 
the  nearly  complete  removal*  of  the  carbon.  The 
process  with  large  pieces  requires  many  days.  If 
the  iron  is  carefully  selected,  and  the  decarboniza- 
tion  is  thoroughly  performed,  the  castings  are  nearly 
as  strong,  and  sometimes  hardly  less  malleable,  than 
fairly  good  wrought-iron,  and  they  can  be  worked 
like  that  metal.  They  will  not  weld,  however.  The 
pig-iron  should  be  very  free  from  sulphur  and  phos 
phorus.  The  best  makers  have  usually  melted  the 
metals  in  crucibles  having  a  capacity  of  50  to  75 
Ibs.,  keeping  it  carefully  covered  to  exclude  cinder 
and  other,  foreign  matter.  The  furnace  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  brass  foundry,  2  to  2J  feet  square,  and 
the  fire  is  kept  up  by  natural  draught.  The  temper- 
ature is  determined  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  the 
practical  purposes  of  the  iron-founder  by  withdraw- 
ing a  portion  on  an  iron  bar.  If  hot  enough,  the 
drop  burns  on  exposure  to  the  air.  If  right,  the 
metal  is  poured  quickly.  The  "cementation"  or 
decarbonization  is  conducted  in  cast-iron  boxes,  in 
which  the  articles,  if  small,  are  packed  in  alternate 
layers  of  the  decarbonizing  material.  As  a  maxi- 
mum about  800  to  1000  Ibs.  of  castings  are  treated 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS.         69 

at  once.  The  largest  pieces  require  the  longest 
time.  The  fire  is  quickly  raised  to  the  maximum 
temperature,  but  at  the  close  of  the  process  the  fur- 
nace is  cooled  very  slowly.  The  operation  requires 
3  to  5  days  with  ordinary  small  castings,  and  may 
take  two  weeks  for  large  pieces.  Decarbonization  is 
often  performed,  in  the  production  of  steel  castings,  by 
a  process  of  dilution,  accompanied  with  possibly  some 
"dissociation."  By  the  preceding  method  the  car- 
bon takes  oxygen  from  the  surrounding  oxides,  and 
passes  off  as  carbon  monoxide  (carbonic  oxide).  In 
the  process  now  referred  to  the  carbon  of  the  cast 
iron  is  shared  between  the  latter  and  the  wrought 
iron  mixed  with  it  in  the  melting  pot,  and  a  small 
portion  may  possibly  pass  off  oxidized.  The  latter 
method  has  been  practiced  to  some  extent  for  a  cen- 
tury. Selected  cast-iron  and  good  wrought-iron  are 
melted  down  together  in  a  crucible,  and  cast  in 
moulds  like  cast-iron.  The  metal  thus  produced 
contains  a  percentage  of  carbon,  which  is  determined 
by  the  proportions  of  cast  and  wrought-iron  in  the 
mixture.  The  amount  is  frequently  so  small  that 
the  castings  can  be  forged  like  wrought-iron. 


70  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


WROUGHT-IRON  (OR  MITIS)  CASTINGS. 

WHEN  wrought-iron  is  heated  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture  it  does  not  pass  quickly  into  the  fluid  state,  but 
for  a  large  increase  of  temperature  above  the  point 
at  which  it  first  softens  it  will  remain  thick  or  mushy. 
At  a  very  high  temperature  it  can  be  made  suffi- 
ciently fluid  to  pour  into  moulds,  but  the  castings 
then  made  are  notably  unsound  and  weak.  It  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Wittenstroem,  of  Stockholm, 
working  with  the  co-operation  of  Mr.  L.  Nobel,  of 
St.  Petersburg,  that  if  a  small  amount  of  aluminium 
is  added  to  a  charge  of  wrought-iron  which  has  been 
heated  until  pasty,  the  iron  immediately  liquefies  and 
can  be  poured  into  castings  having  all  the  properties 
of  wrought-iron  except  fibre,  and  as  sound  as  if  of 
cast-iron.  These  castings  were  called  "Mitis"  cast- 
ings, because  of  their  softness  in  contrast  with  iron 
castings. 

The  advantages  of  an  addition  of  aluminium  to 
fluid  iron  are  important.  With  moderate  care  abso- 
lutely pure  and  solid  castings  can  be  obtained,  capa- 
ble of  receiving  a  high  polish.  An  addition  of  alumi- 
nium is  especially  to  be  recommended  for  the  manu- 
facture of  steam  cylinders,  engine  castings,  press 


WROUGHT-IRON   CASTINGS.  71 

cylinders,  and  generally  for  castings  which  are  to  be 
subjected  to  a  high  pressure.  A  few  hints  will  serve 
to  show  how  aluminium  is  best  alloyed  with  iron. 
As  aluminium  only  lends  itself  with  difficulty  to 
combination  with  iron,  it  is  not  immediately  to  be 
introduced  in  the  ladle  which  is  to  be  poured  into 
the  mould ;  a  smaller  ladle  is  selected,  in  which  is 
placed  the  heated  aluminium.  Somewhat  fluid  iron 
is  then  brought  from  the  furnace,  poured  in  the  ladle, 
and  stirred  until  the  aluminium  compound  begins  to 
stiffen .  The  iron  intended  to  be  cast  is  now  let  out 
of  the  furnace  into  the  ladle  intended  for  it,  the 
aluminium-mixture  is  poured  in,  and  the  whole  inti- 
mately mixed.  The  melted  metal  should  not  be 
poured  into  the  mould  too  quickly,  as  it  does  not 
solidify  as  rapidly  as  ordinary  iron.  Aluminium- 
iron  in  the  fluid  condition  is  very  active;  small 
globules  are  formed,  which  gradually  extend  to  the 
edge  of  the  ladle,  where  they  disappear.  At  first 
the  iron  is  of  a  milk-white  color  \  then  it  becomes 
orange-yellow,  and  forms  a  thin  film  on  the  top. 
When  this  moment  has  arrived,  the  film  is  removed, 
and  casting  is  proceeded  with,  care  being  taken  that 
the  mould  is  always  kept  full.  For  100  Ibs.  the 
proportion  of  aluminium  recommended  is  about  3J 
ounces.  Cost  can  be  no  drawback  in  view  of  the  pres- 


72  BRASS   AND   IRON   POUNDBK. 

ent  comparative  cheapness  of  aluminium,  particularly 
when  it  is  considered  with  how  much  greater  cer- 
tainty clean  castings  can  be  obtained.  Aluminium 
improves  cast-iron  as  phosphorus  improves  tombac 
and  brass,  the  fluidity  being  increased  and  the  oxide 
separated. 

The  details  of  the  production  of  Mitis  castings  are 
as  follows :  As  the  raw  material  to  operate  on, 
wrought  iron,  scrap  or  mild  steel  are  equally  suit- 
able. It  was  found  that  some  of  the  best  results  are 
to  be  obtained  by  using  Swedish  scrap  or  English 
hematite  iron,  that  is,  materials  containing  less  than 
0.1  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  which  is  a  very  injuri- 
ous ingredient  if  present  in  much  larger  quantity. 
Using  a  mixture  with  poorer  quality  of  iron,  with 
phosphorus  running  up  to  0.15  per  cent.,  good  re- 
sults may  still  be  obtained — that  is,  the  castings  will 
compare  favorably  with  ordinary  malleable  castings. 
In  using  scrap-steel,  which  is  necessarily  low  in 
phosphorus,  ifc  was  found  that  manganese  interfered 
with  the  production  of  good  castings,  a  result  rather 
unexpected.  Since  almost  every  melter  devises 
various  mixtures  of  his  own,  as  circumstances  permit, 
it  is  but  natural  that  the  best  features  of  the  Mitis 
process  are  found  united  with  some  other  old  estab 
lished  practices.  Thus,  in  one  Mitis  plant  in  the 


WKOUQHT-IRON    CASTINGS.  78 

United  States  the  mixture  for  melting  was  composed 
of:  Mitis  scrap  35  per  cent.,  hematite  muck  bar,  35, 
wrought  iron  punchings,  12f ,  soft  steel  scrap  (0.1 
per  cent,  carbon),  12f ;  white  pig  iron,  3  ;  ferro- 
silicon  (10  per  cent,  silicon),  1  ;  ferro-aluminium 
(6  per  cent,  aluminium),  §.  It  seems  that  in  this 
charge  the  melter  used  a  little  white  iron  as  a  flux, 
which  would  probably  introduce  0.1  per  cent,  of  car- 
bon ;  then  the  virtues  of  ferro-silicon  for  making 
sounder  castings  are  utilized  by  adding  0.1  per  cent, 
of  silicon  to  the  charge ;  lastly,  0.04  per  cent,  of 
aluminium  was  introduced. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  if  iron  free  from 
impurities  is  used,  very  good  castings  are  obtained  ; 
if  iron  is  used  with  a  large  percentage  of  phosphorus, 
proportionally  brittle  and  unsatisfactory  castings 
result. 

The  ferro-aluminium  should  be,  for  similar  reasons, 
free  from  any  considerable  amount  of  such  impuri- 
ties as  generally  injure  wrought  iron. 

Since  the  castings  are  almost  identical  in  com- 
position with  the  charge  of  iron  melted,  the  following 
analyses  of  mitis  metal,  made  by  Mr.  Edward  Riley, 
will  show  the  range  of  material  or  mixture  to  which 
the  process  has  been  successfully  applied : 


BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


Raw  Material. 

Carbon. 

Silicon. 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Manga-^ 
nese. 

Hematite  bar  .... 

0.067 

0.161 

0.068 

fr.022, 

Swedish  scrap.    .   .    . 

0.053 

0.044 

0.077 

0.027 

Refined  iron    .... 

0.130 

0.124 

0.137 

0.014 

£  Staffordshire  iron  "> 
|  Swedish  scrap.        / 

0.130 

0.035 

0.150 

0.026 

f  Staffordshire  iron  "» 
|  Hematite  bar.          / 

0.070 

0.093 

0.194 

0.014,  , 

Staffordshire  iron  .    . 

0.106 

0.080 

0.250 

0.014 

The  above  figures  are  percentages;  sulphur  was 
present  in  all  as  a  trace.  The  first  in  the  table, 
those  low  in  phosphorus,  gave  the  best  castings,  -  the 
last  the  poorest ;  with  over  J  per  cent,  of  phosphorufe 
the  castings  were  brittle. 

The  charge  of  wrought  iron  is  placed  in  covered 
crucibles  and  brought  to  a  temperature  of  about 
2200°  C.,  at  which  heat  it  just  loses  the  solid  ami 
assumes  the  pasty  condition.  If  it  were  desired  to 
cast  the  iron  without  adding  aluminium,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  superheat  it  several  hundred  degrees 
above  this  point,  not  only  to  give  it  the  desired 
fluidity,  but  also  to  permit  it  being  carried  about 
the  casting  shop.  It  is  during  this  superheating 
that  a  large  part  of  the  gases  contained  in  the 
melted  iron  are  absorbed.  If,  therefore,  the  charge 
is  treated  with  aluminium  immediately  on  reaching 
the  melting  point,  the  effect  is  such  that  this 
superheating  with  its  accompanying  deteriora- 


WROUGHT-IRON   CASTINGS.  75 

tion  of  the  iron  is  rendered  unnecessary.  This 
is  possible  for  the  reason  that  on  adding  ferro- 
alurninium  sufficient  to  introduce  0.05  to  0.1  per 
cent,  of  aluminium,  the  charge  immediately  liquefies, 
and  is  so  far  from  its  setting  point  that  it  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  furnace  and  poured  into  numerous 
moulds,  retaining  all  the  time  its  exceptional  fluidity. 
The  metal  acts  just  as  if  it  had  been  super-heated 
several  hundred  degrees,  but  this  has  been  accom- 
plished without  leaving  it  in  the  furnace  for  half  an 
hour  or  so,  thus  attaining  an  economy  of  fuel,  which 
is  not  to  be  ignored.  When  the  crucible  is  taken 
from  the  furnace  the  charge  is  perfectly  dead  melted, 
lies  quiet  in  the  crucible,  evolves  no  gas,  and  teems 
like  melted  silver.  It  is  cast  in  either  sand  or  iron 
moulds,  and  on  account  of  its  fluidity  does  not  re- 
quire large  heads  to  bring  the  castings  up  sharp  and 
show  the  finest  impressions  of  the  mould.  The 
material  being  primarily  wrought-iron,  the  castings 
do  not  have  to  be  annealed  before  using.  The  thin- 
nest  and  most  complicated  castings,  which  it  would  be 
almost  impossible  to  forge  in  wrought-iron,  can  be 
produced,  thus  furnishing  difficultly  forged  pieces  at 
not  much  greater  expense  than  ordinary  castings. 
Mitis  castings  are,  in  short,  objects  cast  of  melted 
iron,  yet  having  all  the  desirable  properties  of 
wrought-iron. 


JtJ  L'RASS    AND    IKON    FOUNDER. 


MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL    CASTINGS.* 

A  LARGE  number  of  so-called  steel  castings  are 
nothing  more  than  malleable  iron.  The  best  of  these 
castings  are  made  from  superior  white  pig,  as  low 
in  silicon  and  phosphorus  as  possible.  They  are 
made  in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  iron  castings, 
except  that  the  metal  having  so  little  silicon  chills 
much  quicker  than  ordinary  No.  1  foundry  iron,  and 
the  liability  to  shrinkage-cracks  renders  it  necessary 
to  put  large  "rising-heads"  on  the  castings.  The 
castings  after  cooling  are  very  hard,  and  almost  as 
brittle  as  glass,  and  are,  or  should  be  preferably, 
perfectly  white  throughout.  They  are  then  an- 
nealed in  ore  or  scale,  to  which  a  little  sal  ammoniac 
has  been  added.  This  latter  operation,  which  re- 
quires about  two  weeks,  produces  on  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  casting  a  coating  of  malleable  iron  abcut 
^  of  an  inch  thick,  and  renders  the  inside  sufficiently 
soft  to  be  tooled  without  any  difficulty.  For  small 
castings  such  a  metal  is  admirably  adapted,  but  cast- 
ings several  inches  thick  made  in  this  way  are  only 
slightly  superior  to  good  pig-iron  in  having,  perhaps, 
i  little  greater  tensile  strength. 

*  Abstracted  from   a  paper  by  Mr.  P.  G.  Salom,  read  beiore 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  May,  1885. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL   CASTINGS.  77 

Crucible  steel  castings  are  a  failure  and  always 
will  be.  By  this  statement  it  is  not  meant  to  say  that 
it  is  impossible  to  make  such  castings  satisfactory. 
But  with  the  single  exception  of  a  particular  class  of 
work  where  hardness  and  ultimate  strength  are  alone 
desired  (for  which  requirements  they  are  well 
adapted),  there  are  always  a  number  of  disturbing 
elements  that  will  eventually  result  in  the  total  dis- 
use of  crucible  castings.  The  value  of  small  steel 
castings  depends  on  the  possession  of  qualities  that 
render  them  equal  "or  superior  to  forgings.  When 
it  is  attempted  to  make  a  steel  with  the  requisite 
qualities  the  troubles  begin.  First,  in  order  to  get 
such  a  steel,  muck-bar  must  be  used  almost  exclu- 
sively. This,  as  every  one  knows,  is  Very  difficult  to 
melt  in  a  crucible  furnace,  and  after  melting  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  pour  it,  as  the  metal  chills  be- 
fore  the  pots  can  be  emptied.  If,  however,  after 
unusual,  exertions,  a  successful  cast  be  made,  the 
castings  are  found  to  be  full  of  blow-holes.  There 
are  two  means  employed  to  remedy  the  latter  defect: 
first,  by  the  use  of  ferro-silicon,  and  second,  by  mak- 
ing a  steel  higher  in  carbon  and  therefore  more 
Fusible.  When  sufficient  ferro-silicon  is  added  to 
give  from  0.5  to  1.0  of  silicon  in  the  steel,  the  metal 
is  not  difficult  to  melt,  but  the  resulting  castings. 


78  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

while  soft  and  solid,  have  lost  all  their  ductility,  and 
are  simply  a  superior  form  of  pig-iron,  with  a  tensile 
strength  of  about  50,000  Ibs.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  pots  are  charged  with  stock  higher  in  carbon  and 
only  a  small  percentage  of  ferro-silicon  is  added,  the 
castings  are  solid,  but  are  brittle,  and  so  hard  as  to 
be  difficult  to  tool.  Their  hardness  is  extremely  ob- 
jectionable to  machinists,  but  their  brittleness  is  a 
still  greater  evil,  and  precludes  the  possibility  of 
their  replacing  forgings.  It  has  been  attempted  to 
overcome  the  latter  difficulty  by  annealing,  and  by 
this  means  a  really  superior  crucible  casting  can  be 
made.  But  the  additional  cost  of  production  is 
greater  than  consumers  are  willing  to  pay  for  tho 
castings. 

Bessemer  steel  castings.  The  Bessemer  process 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel  castings  is  as  yet  open 
to  the  objection  of  making  a  less  homogeneous  and  a 
harder  metal  than  the  open  hearth.  Some  time  ago, 
a  number  of  large  Bessemer  steel  cranks,  weighing 
from  7,000  to  8,000  Ibs.  each,  broke  in  half  when  it 
was  attempted  to  shrink  them  on  the  shafts  for  which 
they  were  intended.  Notwithstanding  these  failures, 
it  is  believed  that  in  the  near  future  all  steel  castings 
will  be  made  by  the  Bessemer  or  an  equivalent 
pneumatic  process. 


MANUFACTURE  OF   STEEL   CASTINGS.  79 

Open-hearth  steel  castings.  This  method  can  be 
relied  upon  to  make  a  very  large  class  of  important 
castings  with  entire  success.  According  to  Mr, 
Alexander  L.  Holley*  the  operation  consists: 

"  1  In  the  formation  of  an  initial  bath  of  mangan- 
iferous  pig  to  prevent  oxidation  during  the  process. 

"  2  In  dissolving  such  softening  or  decarbonizing 
materials  as  wrought-iron  in  this  bath. 

"  3  In  the  addition,  at  the  end  of  the  operation,  of 
silicon  and  manganese  in  such  order  and  proportion 
as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  blow-holes  while 
casting,  and  at  the  same  time  to  give  to  the  steel 
certain  special  physical  qualities. 

"  Another  very  important  feature  of  the  process  is 
the  method  of  taking  tests.  We  will  now  describe 
in  detail  the  different  stages  of  the  operation,  and  we 
will  suppose  at  first,  so  as  to  avoid  confusion,  that 
the  metal  to  be  produced  is  of  the  harder  kind. 

u  The  Furnace. — The  object  of  greatest  import- 
ance during  the  whole  of  the  operation  is  to  keep 
oxidation  as  low  as  possible  in  the  bath.  For  this 
reason  the  furnace  must,  indeed,  be  kept  as  hot  as 

*  Solid  Steel  Castings  for  Ordnance,  Structures  and  General 
Machinery  by  the  Terrenoire  Process.  By  A.  L.  Holley,  C.  B. 
(Reprint  f'om  the  Metallurgical  Review,  N^w  York,  1878,  vol.  IL 
p.  205.) 


80  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

possible,  with  a  good  solid  body  of  flame  ;  but  there 
should  be  only  just  enough  air  admitted  to  promote 
thorough  combustion. 

"  The  Initial  Bath. — This  must  be  made  of  pig 
iron  containing  from  6  to  ?  per  cent,  of  manganese. 
Spiegeleisen  is  probably  the  most  convenient  form  of 
pig ;  but  as  spiegel  with  this  percentage  may  not  be 
at  hand  at  all  times,  the  bath  may  be  formed  by 
taking  a  richer  spiegel,  say  12  or  14  per  cent,  man- 
ganese, and  diluting  it  with  one-half  ordinary  pig 
containing  no  manganese. 

"  The  weight  of  the  initial  bath,  in  proportion  to 
that  of  the  whole  charge,  varies  according  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  heat  is  made.  We  may  say, 
generally,  that  11  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is  an  aver- 
age quantity.  Every  open-hearth  melter  knows  that 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  in  advance  the  exact 
quantity  of  pig  wanted  for  the  operation.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  furnace  has  much  to  do  with  it.  The 
nature  of  the  refining  material  has  also  a  great  influ- 
ence. If  a  specially  pure  product  is  required  and 
the  softening  materials  used  are  very  fine  puddled 
blooms,  nearly  free  from  carbon  and  manganese,  the 
initial  bath  must  necessarily  be  larger,  as  well  as 
richer  in  manganese ;  it  may  in  this  case  reach  14  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  charge.  The  materials  for  the 
initial  bath  are  aH?ys  charged  cold. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL   CASTINGS.  81 

"The  Softening  or  Refining  Materials. — Soon 
after  the  bath  is  completely  melted,  the  refining 
materials  are  successively  added  in  small  lots  of  about 
450  Ibs.  each.  These  are  invariably  preheated,  as 
charging  them  cold  and  frequently  would  te^d  to  keep 
down  the  temperature  of  the  bath. 

"  The  materials  used  in  this  second  period  of  the 
operation  are  chosen  with  reference  to  the  quality  re- 
quired in  the  finished  product.  They  may  be  good 
Bessemer  or  open-hearth  scrap,  fountains  from  pre- 
vious castings,  puddled  bars  or  direct  blooms.  Mater- 
ials inferior  to  these  would  correspondingly  lower  the 
quality  of  the  product.  The  proportion  of  refining 
materials  to  the  whole  charge  averages  78  per  cent. 

"  Slag-tests. — Spiegeleisen  is  used  for  the  initial 
bath,  because  the  manganese  it  contains,  being  the 
most  oxidizable  of  all  the  materials  present,  will  re- 
move oxygen  that  may  be  present  in  the  bath,  and 
will  intercept  oxygen  that  tends  to  enter  it.  So  that 
the  more  manganese  there  is  in  the  slag,  the  less 
oxygen  there  will  be  in  the  metal  below.  Oxide  of 
iron  tends  to  make  the  slag  black ;  manganese  turns 
it  light  olive  or  ash-green,  and  the  different  tints  be- 
tween these  two  extremes  give  to  the  practiced  eye 
an  exact  idea  of  the  state  of  the  oxidation  of  the  bath. 

"  Metal-Test*  before  the  Final  Additions. --The 


82  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

slag-test  gives  no  indication  of  the  physical  state  of 
the  metal,  which  is  an  equally  important  guide  in  the 
operation.  When,  therefore,  the  operator  has  reason 
to  believe  that  the  metal  is  approaching  the  point  of 
sufficient  softening  or  purification,  he  makes  the  fol- 
lowing tests :  A  ladleful  of  metal  is  taken  from  the 
furnace  and  cast  into  a  round  ingot  about  3  inches  in 
diameter  and  1J  inches  thick.  The  ingot  is  knocked 
out  of  the  mould  as  soon  as  set,  and  flattened  under 
a  special  steam  hammer,  at  its  original  heat,  into  a 
disk  about  7  inches  in  diameter  and  f  of  an  inch 
thick.  From  bending  and  fracturing  these  disks  the 
operator  can  judge  of  the  state  of  his  metal  with 
great  nicety,  and  has  at  hand  all  the  necessary  ele- 
ments to  remedy  any  unfavorable  tendency  likely  to 
develop  during  the  operation. 

"  The  Final  Additions. — These  consist  of  a 
special  pig,  containing  both  silicon  and  manganese 
and  also  an  additional  quantity  of  manganese  intro 
duced  in  the  shape  of  a  50  or  60  per  cent.  Mn  ferro- 
manganese.  A  part  of  these  ingredients  is  taken  up 
by  reactions  which  prevent  the  formation  of  blow- 
holes ;  the  remainder  is  left  in  the  metal  to  impart  to 
it  certain  physical  qualities.  The  usual  charge  con- 
sists of  11  per  cent,  of  special  pig,  having  the  fol- 
lowing composition : 


MANUFACTURE   OP  STEEL  CASTINGS.  83 

Mn, 3.50 

C, 3.00 

Si, 4.20  to  4.60 

P, 0.10 

"  The  proportion  of  ferromanganese  used  varies 
from  1  to  1.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  charge. 

"  The  special  pig  is  charged  hot.  While  it  is 
melting  a  marked  change  takes  place ;  the  bath 
which  up  to  that  time  had  bubbled  about  as  much  as 
in  the  ordinary  pig  and  scrap  operation  becomes 
gradually  more  and  more  quiet  until  its  surface  is 
smooth  and  scarcely  broken  by  small  and  widely 
scattered  bubbles.  When  the  special  pig  is  nearly 
all  melted,  the  ferromanganese  is  thrown  in  hot.  The 
bath  is  then  rabbled  vigorously  for  about  a  minute 
and  casting  takes  place  immediately." 

The  Standard  Steel  Casting  Co.,  Thurlow,  Pa., 
has  found  it  possible  to  simplify  many  points  in  the 
above-mentioned  method,  securing  equally  good  re- 
sults. None  of  the  stock  is  pre-heated  except  the 
final  additions,  and  the  refining  materials  are  charged 
at  once. 

The  two  principal  difficulties  that  the  steel-foundry- 
man  has  to  contend  with  are  blow-holes  and  shrink- 
age. 
.  Blow-holes.     It  is  commonly  supposed  -that  blow- 


84  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

holes  in  castings  are  due  to  carbonic  acid  gas,  disen- 
gaged during  the  operation  of  casting.  This  is  only 
true  to  a  very  limited  extent,  especially  where  the 
steel  contains  0.1  per  cent,  or  more  of  silicon.  Herein 
lies  the  cause  of  the  many  failures  connected  with  the 
manufacture  of  steel  castings.  The  manufacturers 
had  been  led  to  believe  that  it  was  only  necessary  to 
add  a  few  pounds  of  ferro-silicon  to  their  steel,  and 
presto !  all  their  castings  would  be  solid.  Practical 
experience  has  proved  the  fallacy  of  this  idea. 

Blow-holes  in  steel  which  has  been  properly 
melted,  and  to  which  has  been  added  sufficient  ferro- 
silicon,  are  almost  entirely  due  to  the  high  melting- 
point  of  low-carbon  steel,  or  rather  to  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  metal  chills.  This  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  the  lower  ends  of  castings  which  have  been 
fed  from  the  bottom  by  means  of  a  runner  are  always 
solid,  while  the  blow-holes,  when  such  exist,  are 
always  on  top. 

The  difficulty  connected  with  blow-holes  has  almost 
entirely  been  overcome  by  putting  on  top  of  the  cast- 
ing a  rising-head  from  2  to  3  feet  high.  By  this 
means  6000-pound  steel  rolls  without  a  single  blow- 
hole or  flaw  of  any  kind  have  been  made. 

The  long  riser  is  effective  in  two  ways:  First,  it 
carries  from  the  casting  proper  the  sluggish  metal, 


MANUFACTURE    OF   STEEL   CASTINGS.  85 

which  has  been  cooled  in  its  passage  through  the 
mould,  and  allows  the  mould  to  be  filled  with  hot 
fluid  metal ;  and  second,  the  ferrostatic  pressure  of  a 
column  of  iron  3  feet  high  is  equal  to  about  10 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  This  pressure  has  a  ten- 
dency of  course  to  force  the  metal  into  all  the  cor- 
ners and  make  it  solid.  It  also  prevents,  in  a 
measure,  shrinkage  troubles,  and  appears  to  give  to 
steel  castings  that  solidity  for  which  they  are  noted, 
giving  them  a  density  of  7.8,  almost  equal  to  that  of 
a  forging. 

Shrinkage.  This  presents  a  difficult  and  trouble- 
some problem  which  has  not  yet  been  fully  solved. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  make  certain  large,  thin, 
complicated  castings  of  steel.  Shrinkage  troubles 
are  caused  by  the  immense  contraction  of  cast-steel, 
which  frequently  amounts  to  T\  inch  per  foot ;  and  to 
the  hard  dry  sand  moulds,  which  it  is  necessary  to 
use  in  order  to  prevent  the  white-hot  metal  from  de- 
stroying the  mould. 

There  are  five  different  ways  of  attempting  to 
remedy  this  evil : 

1.  By  changing  the  chemical  constitution  of  the 
steel. 

2.  By  stripping  the  castings  as  soon  as  poured. 

3.  By  mechanical  pressure. 


8t>  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

4.  By  large  rising-heads. 

5.  By  care  in  moulding. 

Chemical  Constitution.  A  change  in  the  chem- 
ical constitution  by  increasing  the  manganese  and 
diminishing  the  silicon  will  nearly  always  have  the 
desired  effect.  This  renders  the  metal  more  fluid, 
and  lowers  its  melting  point. 

Stripping.  A  large  number  of  castings  can  be 
saved  from  tearing  apart  or  cracking  when  cooling 
by  simply  opening  the  flasks  immediately  after  pour- 
ing and  covering  the  casting  with  sand. 

Mechanical  pressure.  Quite  a  number  of  difficult 
castings  have  been  saved  by  means  of  mechanical 
pressure.  For  example,  at  one  end  of  the  flask,  and 
immediately  at  the  end  of  the  moulding,  a  small  iron 
plate  is  placed.  This  plate  is  attached  to  a  screw 
which  can  be  turned  from  the  outside  of  the  flask. 
The  arrangement  is  admirably  adapted  for  castings 
large  on  both  ends  arid  small  in  the  middle. 

Rising-head.  A  large  rising-head  prevents 
shrinkage -cracks  by  the  pressure  it  exerts,  and  by 
feeding  the  metal  to  points  where  shrinkage  is  taking 
place. 

Moulding.  Many  castings  can  be  saved  from 
shrinkage-cracks  by  an  intelligent  moulder.  It 
would  be  useless  to  enter  into  details  on  this  subject. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL   CASTINGS.  87 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  every  pattern  is  a  study ;  and 
it  is  only  by  an  intelligent  application  of  the  knowl- 
edge already  gained,  that  it  is  possible  now  to  make 
castings  that  a  few  months  ago  would  have  seemed 
ridiculous  to  attempt. 

Shrinkage-holes.  Shrinkage-holes  in  castings  are 
exactly  similar  to  the  phenomenon  called  "  piping" 
in  crucible  steel.  They  are  very  troublesome  and 
difficult  to  prevent,  although  they  rarely  affect  the 
value  of  a  casting,  coming  as  they  do  in  the  centre. 
They  are  caused,  of  course,  by  the  metal  chilling  be- 
fore the  immense  shrinkage  occurs.  Then  when  this 
contraction  does  take  place  on  all  sides,  but  away 
from  the  center,  there  is  no  more  fluid  metal  to  run 
into  the  space  thus  made  vacant. 


88  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


CASTING   OF  BRASS. 

MODELLING  and  pattern-making  are  both  used  for 
brass  work,  and  although  these  are  distinct  branches 
of  trade  from  founding,  where  work  is  systematically 
performed,  yet  there  are  many  work-shops  where  it 
is  of  great  importance  that  the  same  man  should  be 
able  to  execute  work  and  understand  the  general 
principles  both  of  modelling  and  pattern-making,  as 
well  as  of  brass  founding. 

The  materials  commonly  employed  for  modelling 
are  pipe-clay  an'd  stucco.  The  former  is  used  foi 
work  of  a  protracted  nature,  the  latter  for  straight 
flat  models,  which  can  be  finished  off  at  once.  Pipe- 
clay, which  is  decomposed  feldspar,  is  made  into  a 
putty  with  water  or  glycerine ;  the  latter  preventing 
its  getting  hard  for  a  considerable  time. 

Almost  the  only  tools  required  for  modelling  are 
made  of  box-wood  with  variously  shaped  ends.  The 
handles  are  about  6  inches  long ;  the  sharpest  edges 
are  slightly  nicked;  the  others  are  all  more  or  less 
blunt. 

A  horizontal  lathe  or  turning  table,  like  a  potter's 
wheel,  is  also  used  for  circular  pieces. 

A  few  nicely-planed  boards,  of  various  sizes,  are 


CASTING  OP  BRASS.  89 

required.  On  these  boards  an  outline  of  scroll  or 
other  work  is  drawn,  the  clay  being  placed  thereon 
and  modelled. 

Clay  is  modelled  with  the  hand  and  wood  tools, 
mostly  by  pressure.  The  clay  adheres  to  wood,  or 
the  turning  table,  when  slightly  moistened,  and  re- 
quires no  other  fixing. 

Models  made  either  in  clay  or  wood,  and  which  are 
intended  for  immediate  use,  require  to  be  made 
larger  than  the  size  given,  by  J  inch  to  every  foot. 

Brass  castings  under  12  inches  in  size  shrink  about 
J-  inch  to  a  foot  in  the  mould.  Large  castings  shrink 
about  T3s  inch.  For  this  purpose  it  is  best  to  con- 
struct a  measure  or  rule,  properly  divided,  so  as  to 
save  time  and  calculation. 

Should  it  be  required,  however,  to  make  a  metal 
pattern  from  the  clay  or  wood,  then  the  shrinkage 
will  be  double,  and  the  model  will  require  to  be  made 
J  inch  larger  per  foot  every  way,  a  second  measure 
or  rule  being  required.  The  real  shrinkage  is  only 
T\,  but  the  other  T\  is  allowed  for  finishing.  Patterns 
exactly  rectangular  do  not  draw  well  from  the  sand ; 
hence,  all  patterns  should  be  made  with  a  taper  of  at 
least  J  inch  to  every  foot.  Sharp  internal  angles 
should  be  avoided,  as  they  leave  an  arris  on  the  sand 
which  requires  mending. 


90  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

It  is  often  necessary,  in  model  making,  to  take 
impressions  and  casts  from  existing  works,  which 
cannot  be  cut  up.  In  such  case  an  impression  can 
be  taken  from  it  in  gutta-percha.  To  soften  the 
gutta-percha,  either  warm  it  in  front  of  a  fire,  or 
place  it  in  hot  water,  and  knead  it  with  the  hands  to 
make  it  of  a  uniform  degree  of  pliability.  After 
taking  the  impression,  place  it  in  cold  water,  other- 
wise the  gutta-percha  will  contract  on  cooling. 

Stucco  is  also  used  for  this  purpose,  or  a  mixture 
consisting  of  4  parts  black-resin  and  1  part  of  yellow 
wax. 

For  complicated  patterns,  or  where  cores  are  re- 
quired, melt  12  parts  glue,  to  which  add  3  parts 
treacle. 

To  prevent  wooden  patterns  from  absorbing  moist- 
ure, they  should  be  varnished  or  painted ;  before 
use,  polish  them  with  black  lead,  as  that  makes  them 
draw  from  the  sand  much  more  freely. 

Mouldings  and  the  like  can  be  quickly  modelled 
in  long  lengths,  by  sweeping  them  up  in  stucco  or 
other  material,  by  means  of  a  broad  cut  to  the  re- 
quired profile,  as  is  done  in  loam  moulding. 

A  moulding  tub  is  provided  for  small  brass  work ; 
it  should  be  very  strong,  constructed  of  wood,  pro- 
vided with  sliding  ba**s  and  a  number  of  1  inch 


CASTING   OP  BRASS.  91 

boards  with  cross-ends  the  size  of  the  moulding 
boxes.  The  moulding  boxes  are  clasped  lengthwise 
by  wooden  clamps  fastened  by  screws  and  nuts.  In 
large  boxes  cross-bars  are  sometimes  cast  across 
them,  or  the  bars  may  be  of  wrought  iron  cast  in. 

Ordinary  plain  work  is  arranged  according  to  cir- 
cumstances in  the  flask.  When  only  one  or  two 
castings  are  required  from  a  pattern,  the  pattern  is 
wrapped  into  the  flask,  that  is,  the  top  part  being 
rammed  up,  a  portion  of  the  sand  is  removed  and  the 
pattern  inserted.  After  sprinkling  on  some  parting 
sand,  the  drag  is  placed  on,  and  facing  sand  sieved 
in,  after  which  the  ordinary  sand  is  rammed  in  until 
the  flask  is  full.  Then  the  flasks,  top  and  drag,  are 
turned  over  so  that  the  drag  is  lowest,  when  the  top 
part  is  taken  off  and  emptied,  the  face  of  the  drag 
cleaned  again  and  dusted  with  parting  sand.  After 
this  the  top  part  is  put  on  and  filled  and  rammed 
with  facing  and  ordinary  sand,  as  was  done  above. 
The  top  part  is  again  removed  and  the  patterns  with- 
drawn. In  the  process  of  parting  the  box  and  with- 
drawing the  patterns  it  often  occurs  that  part  of  *h; 
sand  is  torn  away,  which  in  consequence  requires  to 
be  mended.  This  process  of  mending  is  a  very  tedi- 
ous and  costly  one.  When  the  moulds  have  been 
mended  and  furnished  with  gas  ard  air  outlets,  and 


92  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

gates  and  runners  for  the  inlet  of  the  metal,  the  top 
and  drag  are  put  together,  closed,  and  clamped. 
The  mcald  is  then  ready  to  be  poured.  This  mould 
is  called  a  "green-sand  mould,"  not  having  been 
dried;  but  if  a  fine  appearance  is  required,  the 
mould  before  being  closed  should  be  placed  in  the 
drying  stove.  When  a  large  number  of  any  article 
is  required,  plate-moulding  is  generally  employed. 

In  commencing  the  operation  of  plate-moulding,  a 
pattern  or  pattern  plate  of  the  articles  to  be  cast 
from  is  prepared  either  in  iron,  wood,  or  any  other 
suitable  material,  in  the  following  manner:  The  pat- 
tern, prepared  with  an  allowance  for  the  thickness, 
is  placed  upon  a  suitable  board,  set  upon  a  deep  and 
solid  bed  of  sand.  A  moulding  box,  about  6  inches 
larger  than  the  pattern  every  way,  is  then  placed 
upon  the  board  ;  the  pattern  being  set  fairly  in  the 
middle,  it  is  rammed  up  and  turned  over  on  another 
solid  bed  of  sand;  the  board  is  then  removed,  and 
the  parting  carefully  made.  The  top  part  of  the  box 
is  then  put  on  to  the  part  already  rammed  up,  which 
is  the  drag ;  the  gate  pins  are  put  in  suitable  places, 
and  this  also  is  rammed  up. 

The  two  parts  are  then  separated,  and  a  frame  ot 
wood,  about  J  inch  thick  and  1J  broad,  is  placed  on 
the  parting,  keeping  the  pattern  fair  in  the  middle. 


CASTING    OF   BRASS.  93 

Th6  outside  of  the  frame  is  made  up  firmly  with 
sand,  so  as  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  metal.  A 
piece  of  iron,  the  same  thickness  as  the  frame,  fc 
inches  broad  and  about  4  inches  long,  is  placed  on 
each  corner  of  the  under  part  of  the  box  or  drag,  so 
that  when  the  top  part  is  placed  on  it,  it  will  be  raised 
up  the  thickness  of  the  frame. 

The  frame  and  patterns  are  then  removed,  and  the 
mould  is  carefully  finished.  The  top  part  is  after- 
wards placed  upon  the  under  part  of  the  box,  and 
the  two  parts  are  securely  fastened  together.  The 
metal  is  then  poured  into  the  mould,  and  the  pattern 
plate  is  produced.  This  plate  is  formed  with  four 
checks  on  it,  which  are  filed  ani  faced  to  ensure 
accuracy  in  the  moulding.  The  pattern  plate  being 
cast  in  the  manner  above  described,  it  is  cleaned  and 
fitted  to  the  moulding  boxes,  the  pins  and  snugs  of 
which  and  checks  in  the  plate  being  all  fitted  exactly 
to  one  another.  The  pattern  plate  may  be  used 
singly,  that  is,  may  be  turned  over  with  the  top  part 
and  drag  of  the  moulding  box  ;  or  two  plates  may  be 
made,  the  face  impression  being  taken  off  one  plate, 
and  the  back  impression  off  a  different  plate.  When 
two  plates  are  used,  each  plate  must  be  accurately 
fitted  and  secured  to  a  frame,  which  may  be  con- 
structed of  wood  or  iron,  and  furnished  with  guides, 


94  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

corresponding  with  the  pins  and  snugs  of  the  mould- 
ing boxes.  The  pins  of  the  moulding  boxes  may  be 
either  simply  faced,  or  steel  fitting  strips  can  be  in- 
serted into  grooves  formed  in  them  by  mandrels. 

When  an  opening  or  hollow  has  to  be  left  in  the 
interior  of  a  brass  casting,  a  core  is  inserted  in  the 
mould.  This  consists,  as  usual,  of  a  properly  shaped 
piece  of  baked  sand,  exactly  the  counterpart  of  the 
hole  that  is  desired.  This  is  placed  in  the  mould  to 
prevent  the  metal  or  alloy  from  running  into  the 
space.  To  keep  the  core  in  its  position,  it  is  made  a 
little  longer  or  wider  than  necessary,  so  as  to  have  a 
bearing  to  rest  on  at  each  end.  The  pattern  must 
hare  projections  on  it,  so  as  to  leave  an  impression  in 
the  sand  to  receive  the  end  of  the  cores.  Some  cores 
have  only  one  bearing,  as  in  the  case  of  undercut 
work,  such  as  fluted  columns  and  ornamental  scroll- 
work.  Innumerable  modifications  in  the  size  and 
shape  of  cores  exist  in  every-day  practice,  and  much 
skill  is  required  in  their  preparation. 

Cores  are  usually  made  in  boxes.  Where  it  would 
be  too  costly  to  construct  a  core  box,  it  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  by  moulding  the  pattern  in  sand  and 
casting  it  solid.  A  good  composition  for  this  purpose 
is  1  part  of  plaster  of  Paris  to  2  parts  of  brick  dust, 
mixed  with  water.  When  cast  and  dry,  scrape  down 
to  the  form  of  the 


CASTING  OF  BRASS.  95 

Cores,  like  moulds,  must  have  passages  in  them  to 
allow  of  the  escape  of  gases,  otherwise  the  casting 
will  almost  inevitably  be  spoiled.  A  wire  must  be 
inserted  in  the  core  to  make  such  vent,  and  be  with- 
drawn just  before  opening  the  core-box  to  remove  the 
core.  When  cores  are  large  they  are  supported 
with  iron  rods,  round  which  they  are  built  up.  To 
give  consistency  to  the  sand  used  in  making  cores, 
about  one-half  of  it  should  be  pure  rock  sand,  which 
contains  a  certain  amount  of  clay,  but  not  generally 
enough,  and  consequently  the  addition  of  clay  water 
is  necessary  to  give  the  sand  cohesive  ness. 

The  cores  must  be  dried  in  a  stove,  at  a  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  about  400°  F.  When  dry  they 
should  be  black-washed,  or  coated  with  a  mixture  of 
ground  charcoal  and  water,  with  a  little  size.  This 
wash  must  be  dried  in  the  stove,  when  the  cores  are 
ready  for  use.  In  green  sand  moulds  it  is  advisable 
not  to  insert  the  cores  till  just  before  pouring,  so  as 
to  prevent  their  absorbing  moisture. 

When  a  thin  brass  casting  is  required,  the  upper 
half  of  the  mould  is  moulded  from  the  opposite  im- 
pression, and  a  thin  packing  piece  of  clay  or  other 
material  is  placed  between  the  two  boxes  to  keep 
them  the  required  distance  apart.  When  it  is  de- 
sired to  mould  small'  animals,  butterflies,  leaves,  or 


96  BRASS    ASD    IRON    FOUNDER. 

other  delicate  and  intricate  objects  which  can  be  con- 
sumed  by  fire,  they  are  suspended  in  a  box  sur- 
rounded with  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  brick  dust  to  1 
of  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  water.  This  mould 
is  placed  in  a  furnace  to  consume  the  pattern,  the  re- 
mains being  shaken  out  as  far  as  possible,  and  the 
metal  poured. 

Brass  is  usually  melted  in  the  air  crucible  furnace, 
but  when  large  castings  are  made,  as  those  required 
for  marine  engine  work,  or  for  ecclesiastical  furni- 
ture, a  reverberatory  furnace  will  be  found  most 
suitable. 

Brass  founders'  air  furnaces  are  most  frequently 
sunk  below  the  floor  level,  the  ash-pit  being  closed 
with  a  hinged  iron  grating.  The  covers  for  the  fur- 
nace top  may  be  either  of  cast  or  wrought-iron,  and 
should  be  of  a  dome  shape ;  there  should  be  a 
damper  in  the  flue.  The  interior  of  the  furnace 
must  be  lined  with  fire-bricks  set  in  fire-clay. 

The  fire-bricks  and  clay  are  often  contaminated 
with  foreign  matters,  such  as  oxide  of  iron,  magnesia, 
lime,  or  black-lead.  These  impurities  impair  their 
fire-resisting  qualities,  and  very  much  shorten  the 
"  life  "  of  a  furnace.  Pure  clay  should  be  white, 
opaque  and  oily  to  the  touch,  and  on  analysis  should 
be  found  to  contain  a  la^ge  percentage  of  silica  and 


CASTING    OF   BRASS.  97 

alumina.     Fire-bricks  are  made  from  this  clay  in  the 
ordinary  manner. 

It  is  also  most  important  to  have  good  crucibles, 
which  will  neither  corrode  nor  allow  liquids  and 
gases  to  pass  through  them.  They  should  also  be 
capable  of  resisting  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
The  crucibles  used  are  either  made  of  black  lead  or 
clay.  The  latter  are  cheaper,  but  less  durable  than 
the  black  lead,  and  require  to  be  carefully  hardened 
by  a.  gradual  exposure  to  high  temperatures. 

In  mixing  and  pouring  brass  the  least  volatile 
metal  should  be  melted  first,  the  others  being  plunged 
under  the  melted  metal  with  tongs,  in  small  lumps, 
which  must  be  hot  and  quite  dry.  The  reason  that 
the  metal  should  be  hot  is  that  it  may  remain  dry,  as 
the  steam  from  any  slight  moisture  on  it  when  placed 
in  the  melting  pot,  would  probably  send  the  melted 
metal  spirting  about  in  all  directions. 

The  fuel  for  the  brass  furnace  is  hard  coke,  which 
is  broken  up  into  lumps  the  size  of  a  man's  fist.  The 
crucible  is  placed  bottom  upwards  in  the  fire,  so  as 
to  get  it  thoroughly  heated ;  it  is  then  removed  wit! 
the  tongs,  turned  right  side  up,  and  bedded  on  a 
slab  of  fire-clay  or  a  fire-brick,  covered  with  its  lid, 
and  the  fire  neatly  banked  up  around  it.  The  metal 
is  then  placed  in  the  crucible,  the  cover  put  on  the 


98  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

mouth  of  the  furnace,  and  the  damper  is  opened  to 
increase  the  draught.  The  crucible  then  remains 
until  the  metal  is  "down."  It  is  usual  to  throw  in 
with  the  metal  some  charcoal  dust  or  brpken  glass, 
which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  molten  metal  and 
prevents  oxidation.  In  feeding  the  metal  into  the 
crucible,  put  in  the  copper  or  old  brass  in  small 
pieces  until  it  is  nearly  full.  When  this  is  well 
melted,  add  the  tin  and  mix  it  well  in ;  then  throw  in 
a  few  small  pieces  of  zinc.  If  the  zinc  flares  up, 
throw  the  rest  of  it  into  the  pot,  stirring  it  well ;  then 
lift  the  pot  from  the  furnace,  skim  off  the  dross,  and 
pour  into  the  mould. 

When  placing  the  zinc  in  the  crucible,  drop  a  piece 
of  borax  as  large  as  a  walnut  into  it.  This  is  done 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  zinc  which  goes  off  in  the 
fumes.  If  the  surface  of  the  metal  is  covered  by 
fine  charcoal  or  borax,  which  is  prevented  from  burn- 
ing by  being  renewed,  or  by  broken  glass,  the  loss 
of  zinc  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

If,  however,  when  the  small  trial  pieces  of  zinc  are 
thrown  in,  they  do  not  flare  up,  throw  on  a  little  fuel 
to  make  the  fire  brisk,  and  cover  it  over  until  it 
comes  to  a  proper  heat.  Then,  as  soon  as  the  zinc 
begins  to  flare,  add  the  rest.  If  old  brass  alone  is 
mel*ed  no  tin  is  required,  but  a  small  quantity  of 


CASTING   OP  BEASS.  99 

zinc.  If  part  copper  and  part  brass,  add  tin  and  zinc 
in  proportion  to  the  new  copper,  with  a  little  extra 
zinc  for  the  brass.  To  prevent  volatilization,  char 
coal  or  broken  glass  may  be  spread  over  the  metal 
while  being  melted. 

If  the  metal  is  poured  too  hot,  the  casting  will  be 
sand-burned  and  its  color  impaired.     The  best  cast 
ings  are  obtained  when  the  metal  is  at  such  a  temper 
ature   that  it   will   cool   quickly.     Heavy   casting* 
should,  therefore,  be  poured  last.     The  metal  must 
be  carefully  skimmed.     Small  work  is  poured  verti- 
cally, large  work  horizontally. 

As  soon  as  the  brass  is  poured,  it  is  usual  to  open 
the  boxes,  and  to  sprinkle  the  castings  with  water 
from  the  rose  of  a  watering-pot,  which  makes  the 
castings  softer  than  they  would  otherwise  be.  When 
the  casting  is  completed,  let  the  fire-bars  drop,  clear 
the  furnace  from  ashes  and  clinkers,  and  place  the  po* 
amongst  them  to  cool  gradually. 


100  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


CASTING   OP  BRONZE. 

PARIS  and  its  neighborhood  contain  the  most 
famous  and  the  most  successful  bronze  foundries  in 
the  world,  and  any  one  who  has  visited  that  city  must 
have  noticed  the  number  of  shops  devoted  to  the  sale 
of  the  smaller  articles  of  vertu,  and  the  beauty  and 
elegance  of  their  contents. 

The  French  bronze  works  are  usually  arranged 
into  departments,  which  comprise:  1.  Designer's 
room.  2.  Bronze  foundry.  3.  Chasing  shop.  4. 
Model  shop.  5.  Marble-working  shop,  provided  with 
apparatus  for  working  marble  by  hand  and  machine 
tools.  6.  Enamelling  shop.  7.  Fitting  and  mount- 
ing shop.  8.  Store  room  and  gallery  for  finished 
work. 

M.  Collas  having  improved  upon  certain  old  and 
well-known  principles,  and  perfected  a  beautiful 
machine  for  the  automatic  reduction  or  enlargement 
of  solid  forms,  was  enabled  to  reproduce  any  bronze 
to  any  scale  with  perfect  accuracy  and  small  cost. 
Such  an  invention  well  deserved  the  grand  medal  it 
obtained  at  the  Paris  exhibition,  and  is  now  largely 
employed  by  French  bronze  manufacturers,  who  can 
by  its  means  provide  their  customers  with  a  copy  of 


CASTING   OF   BRONZE.  101 

any  famous  work  of  art  at  a  comparatively 
small  cost. 

•  In  the  foundry,  if  the  works  generally  to  be  pro- 
duced are  small  in  size,  the  moulding  is  done  on 
benches,  and  the  moulders  work  vis-a-vis  at  the  same 
bench,  which  is  divided  by  a  longitudinal  partition, 
provided  with  a  shelf  for  tools.  Small  and  unimpor- 
tant pieces  may  be  moulded  in  green  sand,  large 
works  in  loam,  but  the  greater  portion  of  general 
work  is  moulded  in  dry  sand.  The  two  sands  prin- 
cipally employed  are  obtained  from  a  place  called 
Fontenay  des  Roses,  near  Paris ;  the  one  is  a  deep- 
brown  loamy  sand,  the  other  is  of  a  light  yellow- 
white  tinge.  These  sands  are  mixed  in  proportions 
carefully  regulated  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
work  for  which  they  are  intended,  and  the  mixture  is 
reduced  to  a  uniform  fineness  by  being  passed  be- 
tween cast-iron  rollers.  The  sand  is  then  dampened 
and  sifted.  The  moulding  boxes  are  of  cast-iron, 
accurately  fitted,  the  edges  being  planed  true. 

When  the  objects  are  to  be  finished  in  the  lathe 
the  patterns  are  sometimes  of  wood,  but  most  fre- 
quently bronze  models  are  made,  and  are  truly  fin- 
ished to  the  desired  form.  Many  other  substances 
are  used  for  models,  sucfr  as  plaster,  wax,  fusible 
metal,  porcelain  and  glass. 


102  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

For  facing  sand  a  mixture  of  potato  starch  and 
charcoal  dust  or  fine  white  flour  is  used ;  but  char- 
coal dust  is  the  favorite  material. 

Sand  cores  are  used  for  all  hollow  pieces,  unless 
they  are  to  be  cast  in  loam,  or  are  of  a  large  size  ; 
in  the  latter  case,  the  cores  are  of  loam.  In  bronze 
statue  casting,  the  thickness  of  the  metal  should  be 
as  uniform  as  possible,  otherwise  the  work  will  be 
distorted  from  unequal  contraction  ;  bronze  contracts 
considerably  on  cooling,  the  extent  depending  on  the 
proportions  of  the  constituent  metals  employed  in  its 
composition  and  varying  from  one  to  two  per  cent. 
This  contraction  is  found  to  increase  in  ratio  with 
the  size  of  the  casting. 

The  perfection  of  bronze  casting  is  said  to  consist 
in  having  the  mould  very  highly  finished,  and  ob- 
taining a  bright  sharp  casting,  which  shall  require 
only  a  minimum  amount  of  subsequent  chasing  and 
tool-work,  thus  leaving  the  skin  of  the  casting  as  far 
as  possible  undisturbed. 

In  the  French  fine-art  work  the  furnace  arrange- 
ments are  such  that  the  moulds  and  cores  are  gener- 
ally dried  in  furnaces  heated  by  the  waste  heat  from 
the  crucible  furnaces.  The  bronze  is  melted  in  clay 
crucibles,  holding  between  60  and  70  Ibs.,  with  coke 
for  fuel,  and  a  fan-blast.  For  large  work  an  air 
furnace  is  generally  employed. 


CASTING   OP  BRONZE.  103 

Best  English  or  Straits  tin,  and  very  pure  South 
American  copper,  which  latter  is  purified  by  liqua- 
tion, are  the  metals  employed.  A  proportion  of  gates 
and  runners  may  be  added,  but  this  is  only  done 
when  the  proportions  and  quality  of  their  ingredients 
are  known ;  and  no  old  bronze  guns,  old  copper  or 
brass,  or  other  material  of  unknown  and  variable 
composition,  are  ever  used,  as  it  is  considered  im- 
possible to  rely  upon  obtaining  a  first-rate  casting 
from  such  uncertain  ingredients. 

The  moulds  are  placed  in  cast-iron  boxes,  which 
are  placed  in  a  naked  pit.  A  reservoir  formed  ol 
sand  with  a  charcoal  facing  is  employed,  into  which 
the  contents  of  the  crucibles  or  air-furnaces  are 
drawn.  This  reservoir  communicates  with  the  main 
gate  of  the  mould,  and  as  soon  as  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  metal  is  in  the  reservoir,  an  iron  plug  in  the 
bottom  is  removed  and  the  metal  flows  into  the  mould, 
from  whence  the  surplus  passes  off  by  "  rising  heads," 
which  are  purposely  kept  small  for  fear  of  distorting 
the  casting  by  too  great  a  pressure.  The  gas 
evolved  during  the  pouring  is  fired  at  the  rising 
heads  by  a  torch. 

Bronzes  which  are  to  be  coated  with  enamel  have 
their  surfaces  specially  prepared  for  its  reception  by 
what  tin  French  artists  call  cloisonne  or  partition 


104  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

work.  This  process  is  a  somewhat  tedious  one,  and 
requires  great  skill  on  the  part  of  the  moulder.  The 
outlines  of  the  design  for  the  enamel  are  described 
by  small  thin  partitions  of  bronze  projecting  upward 
from  the  main  body  of  the  work  less  than  a  twenty- 
fifth  part  of  an  inch.  Thus  the  bronze  has  its  sur- 
face covered  with  a  network  of  fine  lines,  and  when 
the  enamel  is  baked  into  the  shallow  cells  so  formed, 
the  enamel  and  the  bronze  partitions  are  ground  and 
polished  to  a  uniform  depth.  These  partitions  serve 
two  useful  purposes;  they- describe  the  outlines,  and 
they  tend  to  hold  the  enamel  firmly  in  position.  In 
finishing  patterns  for  this  class  of  work,  every  irregu- 
larity in  the  cells  and  partition  walls  has  to  be  cut  out, 
and  great  care  is  necessary  not  to  injure  the  surface. 
When  such  patterns  are  finished  they  represent  a 
considerable  value  in  skilled  labor,  and  are  extremely 
delicate  ;  consequently  they  are  kept  covered  up  on 
soft  cushions,  away  from  danger  of  accidental  dam- 
age. 

The  founding  of  statues  is  certainly  a  very  ancient 
branch  of  the  art,  and  one  in  which  our  ancestors  have 
held  their  own,  as  the  grace  and  skill  of  existing 
specimens  abundantly  testify.  The  invention  of  the 
Samian  artists  consisted,  in  all  probability,  of  run- 
ning the  metal  into  a  mould  which  contained  a  centre- 


CASTING   OF  BRONZE.  105 

piece  or  kernel,  to  diminish  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  by  leaving  a  hollow  space  in  the  centre  of  the 
statue.  The  necessity  of  this  kernel  is  self-evident, 
for  a  solid  bronze  statue  would  be  most  costly  and 
cumbersome.  Besides,  unless  the  statue  is  very 
light,  it  would  in  many  cases  be  unable  to  stand.  A 
rearing  horse,  for  instance,  could  never  be  upheld  by 
its  hind  legs  if  the  whole  body  was  composed  of 
solid  metal;  and  to  lessen  the  weight  that  would 
otherwise  bend  and  break  so  slender  a  support,  it  is 
not  only  necessary  that  the  horse  should  be  hollow, 
but  it  must  be  as  light  as  skilled  workmanship  can 
render  it.  Since  the  day,  therefore,  of  the  Samian 
artists  down  to  the  present  time,  it  has  been  the  con- 
stant effort  of  bronze  moulders  to  lessen  the  thickness 
of  their  statues  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  kernel, 
so  as  to  leave  as  small  a  margin  as  possible  for  the 
metal  to  run  down  this  centre-piece  and  the  mould 
with  which  it  is  enveloped. 

Among  early  methods  for  obtaining  this  end,  the 
most  familiar  is  known  as  the  cire-perdu,  or  waste- 
wax  process,  which  was  still  in  vogue  when  the  pres 
ent  system  was  introduced,  and  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  two  will  best  illustrate  the  progress  now 
accomplished.  The  "cire-perdu"  process  required 
g)eat  care,  an^  could  only  be  carried  out  effectively 


106  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

by  the  sculptor  or  modeler  himself.  Thus,  let  us 
suppose  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  that  the  object  to 
be  reduced  is  a  portrait  bust  measuring  4  inches  in 
height  and  3  inches  in  width.  The  first  step  would 
be  to  model  in  "sand,"  or  a  mixture  of  porous 
cement,  the  outline  of  the  bust,  taking  care  to  make 
it  on  every  side  J  inch  smaller  than  the  size  it  was 
designed  to  give  to  the  finished  statuette.  This  out- 
line or  "core"  must  be  coated  up  with  wax  to  make 
up  the  deficient  J  inch.  This  much  might  be  accom- 
plished by  an  ordinary  workman,  but  for  the  rest 
the  services  of  the  artist  are  indispensable.  With 
great  delicacy  of  touch  he  must  work  up  the  likeness 
and  texture  of  his  subject  on  the  wax,  in  fact  the  ex- 
pression,  the  minute  lines,  all  the  details  of  the  ar- 
tist's conception,  must  be  executed  in  this  wax,  and 
it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  he  alone  is  competent  to 
carry  this  out  satisfactorily.  Were  it  done  by  any- 
one else,  it  would  be  at  the  best  but  a  copy  of  the 
artist's  conception. 

The  portrait  completed,  five  or  six  pieces  of  wire 
must  be  pushed  through  the  wax  into  the  sand  out- 
line or  core.  It  is  now  necessary  to  coat  over  the 
wax  with  liquid  sand,  applied  mosfc  carefully  with 
a  fine  hair-brush.  When  a  few  coats  of  this  sand 
have  been  made  to  adhere  to  the  wax,  the  statuette 


CASTING   OF   BRONZE.  107 

is  surrounded  by  an  iron  frame,  and  the  frame  is 
filled  up  with  sand-mixture.  The  frame  is  generally 
twice  the  size  of  the  statue.  When  all  is  ready  this 
frame  is  removed  with  its  contents  to  a  warm  place, 
so  that  the  water  may  evaporate  from  the  sand,  and 
the  latter  gradually  consolidate.  Holes  must  then  be 
cut  at  one  end  through  the  outer  sand,  after  which 
the  frame  is  subjected  to  the  baking  process  in  a  hot 
oven.  The  wax  of  course  melts  and  runs  out  of  the 
small  perforations,  leaving  a  space  between  the  inner 
core,  maintained  in  its  position  by  the  wires  above 
mentioned,  and  the  outer  mould,  which  latter  bears 
the  faithful  impression  of  the  modeling  bestowed  on 
the  wax.  The  holes  through  which  the  wax  es- 
caped are  now  used  for  the  purpose  of  introducing 
the  molten  bronze.  The  metal  poured  in  rapidly 
fills  the  space  once  occupied  by  the  wax,  and  the 
work  is  done.  When  the  metal  has  had  time  to  cool, 
the  artist  anxiously  breaks  the  sand-casing  away  to 
disentomb  his  work.  Sometimes  a  successful  result 
rewards  his  pains,  but  the  work  is  often  a  failure. 
The  metal  has  not  perhaps  filled  all  the  sharper  and 
smaller  crevices  in  the  mould,  or  the  presence  of 
damp  has  impeded  the  process,  or  again,  the  escape 
of  various  gases  has  split  the  mould,  and  thus  the 
whole  work  is  in  one  moment  destroyed,  and  must  be 
recommenced  from  the  very  first  stage. 


108  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  method  now  pursued  is 
more  scientific,  involves  less  risk,  and  is  consequent 
ly  less  expensive,  though  it  is  still  necessary  to 
exercise  the  greatest  skill  and  judgment.  The 
sculptor  need  only  produce  his  conception  in  plaster, 
and  when  this  is  finished,  hand  it  over  to  the  founder, 
who  can  undertake  the  rest  of  the  work  without  any 
assistance  from  the  sculptor.  The  plaster  model  is 
immediately  imbedded  in  the  sand  contained  in  an 
iron  frame  or  moulding  box.  Thus  safely  laid  out  in 
a  soft  bed,  the  workman  begins  what  is  called  piece- 
moulding.  Taking  a  small  section  of  the  statue,  he 
forces  the  sand,  by  striking  it  gently  with  a  mallet, 
into  every  fissure  and  crevice,  and  thus  obtains  an 
accurate  impression  of  that  part  of  the  model  on 
which  he  has  been  working.  Having  completed  one 
piece  he  proceeds  with  another,  until  by  putting  the 
pieces  together,  he  can  cover  that  part  of  the  statue 
which  is  exposed  outside  of  the  sand  box.  The  mode] 
is  then  lifted  from  its  bed,  turned  round,  impressions 
taken  from  the  other  side,  and  when  this  is  com- 
pleted the  model  can  be  removed  uninjured. 

The  pieces  of  sand  having  the  impressions  of  the 
model  are  fitted  together  in  their  relative  seatings 
within  the  two  halves  of  the  mould-box.  The  mould 
being  removed,  we  have,'  as  it  were,  two  sand- 


CASTING   OF   BRONZE.  109 

Inversions,  one  representing  the  right  and  the  other  the 
left  side  of  the  statue.  The  moulder  then  proceeds 
to  make  in  the  impress,  a  core  or  fac-simile,  only  a 
little  smaller  in  size,  so  that  when  this  is  placed 
within  the  mould,  there  should  remain  all  round  a 
margin  between  the  mould  and  the  core  equal  to 
about  T\  inch  in  thickness.  The  core  and  the  pieces 
which  constitute  the  mould  being  secured  in  their 
respective  places,  the  whole  is  then  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  an  oven,  so  that  the  moisture  may  be  removed 
and  the  sand  hardened  to  receive  the  metal.  Vents 
for  the  foul  air  and  the  gas  must  also  be  provided, 
and  runners  to  enable  the  metal  to  penetrate  rapidly 
the  margin  between  the  core  and  outer  mould  after 
the  bronze  has  thus  been  cast.  The  sculptor  may, 
if  he  chooses,  suggest  any  improvement  to  the 
chaser,  who  polishes  and  finishes  off  the  casting. 
Owing  to  the  intricacy  and  fineness  of  the  model,  it 
sometimes  requires  a  great  number  of  pieces  to 
make  the  mould,  and  several  months'  work  to  finish 
successfully,  even  a  group  small  enough  to  be  stood 
upon  a  mantle.-piece.  One  of  the  great  advantages 
of  this  new  process  is  the  fact  that  if  the  casting 
fails,  the  artist's  model,  the  result  perhaps  of  infinite 
labor  and  of  an  inspiration  which  may  never  be  re- 
peated, remains  unaltered.  A  new  mould  may  be 
taken  from  it, 'and  the  second  cast  prove  a  succes 


110  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

The  statue  may  thus  also  be  reproduced  as  often 
as  desired;  while  with  the  old  process,  the  artist's 
work  was  carried  away  for  ever  as  the  wax  melted, 
and  if  the  cast  proved  a  failure,  there  was  no  longer 
any  record  of  the  work  done  and  lost. 


BELL-FOUNDING. 

BELL  metal  is  best  composed  of  80  parts  copper 
and  20  tin,  or  78  parts  copper  and  22  tin.  There 
are,  however,  variations  from  these  proportions,  and 
small  accidental  or  intentional  admixtures  of  zinc, 
lead,  etc.,  for  instance,  71  parts  copper,  26  tin,  1.8 
zinc,  and  1.2  iron,  or  80  parts  copper,  10.1  tin,  5.6 
zinc,  and  4.3  lead.  As  regards  silver,  that  is  a 
purely  poetical  and  not  a  chemical  ingredient  of 
bell  metal,  there  being  no  foundation  whatever  for 
the  popular  notion  that  it  was  commonly  used  in  old 
bells,  nor  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  it  would  do 
any  good.  This  may  readily  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  a  silver  cup  makes  rather  a  weise  bell  than 
a  cast-iron  saucepan. 

For  house  bells  the  following  proportions  n\ay  be 
recommended :  Copper,  4  parts ;  tin,  1 :  for  tower 
bells,  copper,  32  parts,  tin,  9 ;  and  for  very  large 
tower  bells,  copper,  1 6  parts,  and  tin,  5. 


BELL-FOUNDING.  Ill 

According   to  Lafond,  the   following   mixture   is 
suitable  for  bells,  but  especially  for  small  bells  and 
piano  plates:  Copper,  77   parts;  tin,  21,  and  anti 
mony,  2.      This   yellowish-white  alloy  can  be  filed 
only  with  difficulty. 

Experiments  have  been  made  to  ascertain  whether 
there  is  any  other  metal  or  alloy  which  would  answer 
better,  or  as  well,  and  be  cheaper  than  bell  metal. 
The  metals  that  have  been  suggested  are  aluminium, 
either  pure  or  alloyed  with  copper,  cast-steel,  union 
metal,  consisting  of  tin  and  iron,  and  perhaps  glass 
might  be  added.  The  first  is  at  present  quite  out  of 
question,  as  it  is  too  expensive.  Steel  bells,  though 
they  might  be  made  cheaper  than  those  of  bell  metal, 
are  exceedingly  harsh  and  unpleasant  in  tone.  Much 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  iron  and  tin  alloy  of 
which  there  was  a  large  bell  in  the  London  exhibi- 
tion of  1851.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  refer  to 
glass,  because  its  brittleness  is  enough  to  disqualify 
it  for  use  in  bells,  but  besides  that  the  sound  is  very 
weak  compared  with  a  bell-metal  bell  of  the  same 
size,  or  even  the  same  weight  and,  of  course,  much 
smaller. 

Dr.  Percy  cast  several  small  bells  of  various  alloys 
with  the  following  results  : 

1.  Iron  95,  antimony  5.  Not  as  good  as  copper- 
tin  alloy  either  in  tone  or  strength. 


112  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

2.  Copper   88.65,    phosphorus   11.35.      A  very 
hard  alloy,  capable  of  a  fine  polish,  but  more  brittle 
than  bell-metal,  and   inferior  in   sound   even   to   the 
iron  alloys. 

3.  Copper  90.14,  aluminium  9.86.     This  exceeds 
bell-metal  in  strength  and  toughness,  and   polishes 
like  gold,  but  for  tone  it  will  not  stand  against  bell- 
metal. 

4.  Brass.     This  makes  a  better  bell  than  the  last- 
named  alloys,  but  very  inferior  to  bell- metal. 

M.  Saint  Claire  Deville,  of  Paris,  cast  a  bell  of 
pure  aluminium.  In  form  it  was  a  reproduction  on  a 
small  scale  of  the  Westminster  bell,  reduced  to  6 
inches  diameter.  The  surface  was  turned  and  every 
care  taken  to  produce  as  perfect  an  aluminium  bell 
as  possible.  But  this  proved  quite  as  objectionable 
in  tone  as  any  of  the  alloys  above  named,  whilst  of 
course  the  cost  would  have  put  the  metal  out  of 
question  commercially,  even  if  it  had  given  a  good 
musical  result. 

For  the  construction  of  large  bells,  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  know  the  constituent  parts  of  a  bell. 
Every  bell  consists  of  the  lower  rim,  the  prim,  pinch 
or  sound-bow,  i.  e.  the  thickest  part  upon  which  the 
clapper  strikes,  further  the  interior  sloping  cavity, 
the  curve,  where  the  bell  gradually  becomes  thicker 


BELL-FOUNDING.  113 

and  wider,  the  upper  half,  the  neck  above  the  cavity, 
the  cap  which  closes  the  bell  above  and  carries  the 
clapper,  and  the  crown  which  is  cast  on  the  cap. 
The  prim  or  pinch  determines  the  proportion  of  the 
entire  bell.  For  200  Ibs.  of  bell-weight,  8  Ibs.  of 
clapper- weight  are,  as  a  rule,  allowed.  The  strength 
of  the  sound  is  dependent  on  the  quantity  of  metal, 
and  its  depth  on  the  form  of  the  bell.  To  a  complete 
church  peal  belongs  the  octave  of  tones:  the  princi- 
pal notes  or  key-notes,  deep  and  high,  then  the 
fourth  and  third  ;  hence.,  four  bells.  The  relation 
of  their  diameters  is  as  that  of  the  figures  2,  If,  1 J 
and  1,  and  the  magnitudes  of  their  weight  as  8  :  4rV : 

2rV:  1. 

In  bell  founding  a  distinction  is  made  between  the 
casting  of  small  and  of  large  bells,  and  both  kinds 
will  here  be  discussed. 

I.  Moulding  and  casting  of  small  bells.  Small 
bells  are  generally  moulded  in  sand.  The  patterns 
used  are  usually  of  tin,  and  must  be  accurately  and 
correctly  made  as  regards  the  proportion  of  width 
and  height,  as  well  as  the  thickness  of  the  metal  to 
the  tone  which  the  bells  to  be  cast  are  to  possess. 
The  patterns  have  no  crown  or  clapper-ring,  but  in- 
stead of  them  are  provided  in  the  centre  of  the  cap 
with  an  oblong  rectangular  aperture. 

8 


114  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

Moulding  is  done  in  flasks  or  boxes,  which  gen- 
erally consist  of  three  cast-iron  or  cast-brass  frames 
placed  one  upon  the  other.  Wooden  frames  are 
seldom  employed.  For  the  process  of  moulding  two 
moulding  boards  of  pine,  or  best  of  linden  wood,  are 
required  for  each  flask.  During  casting,  they  also 
serve  for  covering  the  outer  open  surfaces  of  the 
sand  mould  and,  hence,  form,  so  to  say,  movable 
bottoms  of  the  flasks.  They,,  should  be  somewhat 
longer  and  wider  than  the  flasks  to  which  they  be- 
long, and  be  nicely  planed  on  one  side,  and,  to  pre- 
vent warping,  provided,  on  the  other,  with  cross 
pieces. 

The  process  of  moulding  the  patterns  in  sand  is  as 
follows:  Lay  the  bell-pattern  upon  a  moulding-board, 
place  one  part  of  the  flask  over  it,  and  fill  it  with 
moist  sand.  Then  invert  this  portion  of  the  flask  so 
that  the  pattern  now  appears  as  if  sunk  from  above 
in  the  sand,  dust  the  latter  with  powdered  charcoal, 
then  place  the  other  portion  of  the  flask  upon  it  and 
fill  it  also  with  sand.  Or  proceed  in  the  reverse 
order:  Fill  the  lower  portion  of  the  flask  with  sand, 
place  the  pattern  upon  or  sink  it  somewhat  in  the 
sand,  and  proceed  with  the  upper  portion  as  before. 
The  object  of  dusting  the  sand  with  charcoal  is  to 
prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  two  masses  of  sand  con- 


BELL-FOUNDIfli*.  115 

tained  in  the  two  portions  of  the  flask.  However, 
any  charcoal  powder  which  may  have  fallen  upon 
the  pattern  must  be  removed,  in  order  to  give  the 
sand  a  chance  to  penetrate  into  the  depressions. 
The  sand  is  then  carefully  and  firmly  pressed  down 
with  the  hands,  the  flask  entirely  filled  with  sand,  and 
the  latter  leveled  with  an  iron  straight-edge.  Mould- 
ing being  finished,  the  flask  is  parted,  the  pattern  care- 
fully lifted  out,  and  the  gate  arranged.  Small  bells 
are  moulded  in  an  upright  or  inverted  position,  or 
rather  the  process  of  moulding  remains  the  same,  but 
the  runner  is  placed  in  two  different  ways,  either 
from  the  crown  side  or  from  the  side  of  the  sound 
bow. 

a.  Moulding  the  bell  in  an  upright  position.  In 
this  mode  of  moulding,  the  upper  part  of  the  flask 
must  have  the  same  height  as  the  bell  together  with 
the  quoin,  whilst  the  under  part  may  be  lower.  The 
upper  part  is  placed  upon  a  moulding-board,  and, 
after  placing  the  bell-pattern  together  with  the  quoin 
in  it,  the  space  around  it  is  filled  with  sand.  The 
flask  is  then  inverted,  so  that  the  mouth  of  the 
bell  is  upwards.  The  under  part  of  the  flask  is  next 
placed  upon  the  upper  and  rammed  full  of  sand, 
which  at  the  same  time  fills  the  interior  of  the  bell, 
and  thus  forms  the  core.  Before  ramming  in  the 


116  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

sand  the  iron  staple  for  the  clapper  must  be  so  placed 
in  the  cavity  that  only  its  ring  projects,  which  is 
then  enveloped  by  the  sand  of  the  core.  When  this 
is  done  the  flask  is  again  inverted,  the  upper  portion 
lifted  off,  the  quoin  drawn  out,  and,  after  taking  the 
pattern  from  the  core,  the  flask  is  again  put  together. 
Casting  is  effected  through  the  aperture  left  by  the 
quoin.  The  sides  of  the  staple  for  the  reception  of 
the  clapper  are  then  in  the  empty  space  and  sur 
rounded  by  the  casting.  The  high  gate  is  also  filled 
up  in  casting,  and  the  bell  appears  with  a  tenon  of 
the  form  of  the  removed  quoin  sitting  upon  it.  If 
the  bell  is  to  be  provided  with  a  ring  screwed  into 
the  crown,  this  tenon  is  sawed  off,  or  a  portion  of  it 
sufficient  for  securing  the  bell  is  allowed  to  remain. 

This  mode  of  casting  bells  has  often  the  disadvan- 
tage that  the  core  is  readily  injured  by  the  metal 
flowing  in,  and  that  the  latter,  since  it  must  spread 
in  all  directions  from  one  gate,  cools  off  rapidly,  and 
frequently  does  not  completely  fill  the  mould.  For 
this  reason  moulding  in  inverted  position  is  preferred. 

b.  Moulding  the  bell  in  inverted  position.  The 
bell  pattern  is  placed  upon  the  moulding-board  inside 
the  under  part  of  the  flask  and  entirely  surrounded 
with  sand.  The  flask  is  then  inverted,  and  the  upper 
portion  placed  uoon  it.  Three  small  rods  running 


BELL-FOUNDING.  117 

loosely  together  to  a  knob  over  or  outside  the  mould 
are  moulded  in,  the  upper  part  of  the  flask  being  at 
the  same  time  filled  with  sand,  whereby  the  core  is 
formed.  Around  the  knob  a  funnel-like  depression 
for  pouring  is  made.  Before  taking  out  the  pattern 
the  rods  are  withdrawn,  the  passages  formed  thereby 
serving  as  gates.  If  the  bell  is  to  be  provided  with 
a  canon,  a  cavity  is  made  in  the  sand  by  means  of  a 
flat  piece  of  wood.  The  staple  for  the  clapper  is  put 
in  in  the  same  manner  as  before  described.  By  this 
mode  of  casting  the  metal  flows  in  from  the  gate 
through  three  passages,  and  rapidly  fills  the  mould 
from  three  points  without  injury  to  the  core. 

II.  Moulding  and  casting  large  bells.  In  the 
construction  of  large  bells,  it  is  of  great  importance 
to  know  the  proportions  between  the  dimensions 
which  are  most  advantageous  for  the  production  of 
sound.  The  principal  conditions  for  a  good  bell  are  : 

1.  The  greatest  diameter  of  the  bell  must  be  at 
the  mouth,  and  the  greatest  thickness  of  metal  at  the 
sound-bow. 

2.  A  bell  should  at  the  utmost  measure  in  width 
fifteen  times  and  in  height  (measured  obliquely  on 
the  outside)  twelve  times  the  thickness  of  the  sound- 
bow. 

3.  The  thickness  of  the  bell  decreases  from  the 


118  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

sound-bow  up  to  half  its  height  and  from  there  on 
should  amount  only  to  one-third  of  the  thickness  of 
the  sound-bow.  From  the  sound-bow  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  mouth  the  thickness  also  decreases. 

4.  The  diameter  of  the  mouth  of  the  bell  should 
be  twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  uppermost  part  of  the 
crown. 

5.  The  weight  of  the  clapper  should  be  about  ¥V 
that  of  the  bell.     For  very  large  bells  a  weight  of  5 
to  10  Ibs.  may  be  added  to  the  clapper. 

6.  The  ball  of  the  clapper,  i.  e.  its  round  or  pear- 
shaped  end,  should  be  thicker  in  the  proportion  of  5  : 
3  than  the  thickness  of  the  metal  on  the  sound-bow. 
However,  this  applies  chiefly  only  to  bells  weighing 
over  120  Ibs. 

The  correct  profile  of  a  bell  of  given  diameter  is 
traced  in  the  following  manner,  small  variations'  being, 
however,  customary  in  many  foundries.  Suppose  the 
horizontal  line  a  b  in  the  accompanying  illustration 
(Fig.  1)  is  the  prescribed  width  of  the  bell  at  its  mouth. 
Divide  this  line  which  for  this  purpose  is  once  more 
drawn  at  a'  5',  into  15  equal  parts,  which  are  called 
"  prims,"  because  one  such  part  represents  the 
thickness  of  the  bell  on  the  prim  or  sound-bow. 
The  diameter  of  the  bell  thus  divided  serves  as  a 
measuring  scale  in  the  following  operations.  First 


BELL-FOUNDING.  119 

divide  a  b  by  the  lines  <?/,  d  #,  and  e  h  into  four  equal 
parts  ;  /  h  now  gives  the  diameter  of  the  cap,  which 
is  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  mouth.  Now  measure 
off  with  the  compasses  twelve  prims,  and  with  the 
distance  thus  obtained  intersect  from  the  point  e  the 
line  e  h  in  z,  then  draw  the  line  fo',  and  divide  it  into 
12  equal  parts ;  with  the  radius  b  k,  which  is  equal 
to  1J  prims,  describe  an  arc  from  b.  By  now  cut- 
ting off  a  prim  from  Jc  to  Z,  the  thickness  of  the  bell  on 


the  sound-bow  is  obtained.  After  drawing  the  line 
I  b,  erect  upon  m,  as  the  centre  of  b  i,  a  perpendicu- 
lar, and  set  off  upon  it  a  piece,  m  n  =  1J  prims. 
The  point  n  determinates  how  far  the  curve  of  the 
bell  recedes  in  the  centre  of  the  height.  The  curve 
itself  consists  of  two  parts,  n  k  and  n  i,  of  different 
curvatures.  To  trace  it,  find  with  a  distance  of  30 
prims  from  n  and  i  an  intersecting  point  0,  and  from 
there  describe  with  the  radius  o  n,  the  arc  i  n. 


120  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDRE. 

Further  set  off  upon  the  line  m  n  from  n  to  p  J 
prim,  and  describe  from  o  with  the  radius  o  p  the  arc 
p  q  for  the  interior  curve  of  the  upper  half  of  the 
bell.  The  interior  curve  of  the  lower  half  has  to  be 
drawn  from  another  centre.  For  this  purpose  find 
with  a  distance  of  12  prims,  from  the  points  p  and  Z, 
a  centre  r,  and  describe  from  it  the  arc  p  I ;  then 
from  the  points  n  and  k  find,  with  a  distance  of  8 
prims,  a  point  8  which  gives  the  centre  for  describ- 
ing the  arc  n  Jc.  Finally,  with  a  distance  of  8 
prims  intersect  from  the  terminal  points  a  and  b  of 
the  line  a  5,  the  axis  d  g  of  the  bell  in  f,  and  from 
the  latter  point,  describe  with  the  radius  t  i  the  arc 
i  n  for  the  outer  curvature  of  the  cap.  The  cap  re 
ceives  a  thickness  of  J  prim,  and,  hence,  its  internal 
curvature  is  described  from  the  centre  t  with  a 
radius  which  is  J  prim  smaller  than  t  i.  For  the 
better  securing  of  the  crown  upon  the  bell,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  centre  of  the  cap  is  increased  by  J  prim, 
which  is  designated  by  w  x.  The  exterior  shape  of 
the  bell  traced  according  to  the  above  described  rule 
is  frequently  subject  to  small  variations,  for  instance, 
by  rounding  off  z,  and  u  on  the  edge  of  the  cap,  as 
well  as  k,  and  by  hoops  and  rods  arranged  in  differ- 
ent places  on  the  surface,  partially  for  the  sake  of 
increasing  the  strength,  and  partially  for  orna- 
mentation. 


BELL-FOUNDING.  121 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  how  diffi- 
cult the  construction  of  bells  is,  and  that  every  part 
must  be  strictly  cast  in  accordance  with  its  pro- 
portions. If  bells  of  a  fixed  weight  are  to  be  cast,  a 
normal  bell  of  known  tone,  dimensions,  and  weight 
is  used  for  the  calculation.  However,  such  calcula- 
tion is  not  applicable  to  very  large  bells,  and,  hence, 
they  must  be  constructed  according  to  the  above  de- 
scribed proportions.  Though  the  moulding  of  large 
bells  may  be  called  a  master-piece,  the  casting  re- 
quires the  same  attention  and  equal  skill,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  pure  harmonious  tone ;  the  slightest  in- 
accuracy or  defect  in  casting  destroys  the  harmony, 
and  spoils  the  bell. 

In  calculating  the  sizes  of  bells  to  produce  partic- 
ular notes,  and  assuming  that  eight  bells  are  made 
of  similar  material  and  their  sections  exactly  similar 
figures  in  the  mathematical  sense,  they  will  sound 
the  eight  notes  of  the  diatonic  scale,  if  all  their  di- 
mensions are  in  these  proportions  :  60,  53  J,  48,  45, 
40,  36,  32,  30,  which  are  merely  convenient  figures 
for  representing  the  inverse  proportions  of  the  times 
of  vibration  belonging  to  the  eight  notes  of  the  scale . 
So  that  if  it  is  required  to  make  a  bell  a  fifth  above 
a  given  one,  it  must  be  two,- thirds  of  the  size  in 
every  dimension,  unless  it  is  intended  to  vary  the 


122  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

proportion  of  thickness  to  diameter,  for  the  same  rule 
then  no  longer  holds,  as  a  thinner  bell  will  give  the 
same  note  with  a  less  diameter. 

The  weights  of  bells  of  similar  figures  vary  as  the 
cubes  of  their  diameters,  and  may  be  nearly  enough 
represented  by  the  figures  216, 152, 110,  91,  64,  46, 
33,  27.  The  exact  tune  of  a  set  of  bells,  as  they 
come  out  of  the  moulds,  is  a  secondary  consideration 
to  their  tone  or  quality  of  sound,  because  the  notes 
can  be  altered  a  little  either  way  by  cutting,  but  the 
quality  of  the  tone  will  remain  the  same  forever,  ex- 
cept that  it  gets  louder  for  the  first  two  or  three  years 
that  the  bell  is  used,  probably  from  the  particles 
arranging  themselves  more  completely  in  a  crystal- 
line order  under  the  hammering,  as  is  well  known  to 
take  place. 

The  usual  mode  of  hanging  bells  is  to  cast  six  ears 
or  loops  on  the  top  or  crown  of  the  bell;  these  are 
called  canons,  through  which  iron  hooks  and  straps 
are  put  to  fasten  the  bell  to  the  stock. 

This  method  of  hanging  by  canons  is  no  doubt  ob- 
jectionable, as  they  must  always  be  the  weakest- 
part  of  the  casting,  from  being  nearest  the  top,  and 
in  practice  it  is  found  that  they  frequently  break  and 
have  to  be  replaced  by  iron  bolts  put  through  holes 
drilled  in  the  cr^wn.  It  is  also  difficult  to  turn  the 


BELL-FOUNDING.  123 

bell  in  the  stock,  to  present  a  new  surface  to  the 
clapper  when  it  is  worn  thin  in  one  place.  In  some 
bells  these  disadvantages  are  avoided  by  casting  a 
very  short,  thick,  hollow  neck  with  a  strong  flange 
round  the  top,  which  can  be  fastened  to  the  stock  by 
bolts  with  hooked  ends.  By  this  arrangement  the 
bell  is  held  by  a  large  section  of  its  own  metal,  and 
can  at  any  time  be  shifted  round  by  slackening  the 
bolts.  If  a  clapper  is  to  be  used,  it  can  be  hung 
upon  a  separate  bolt  passing  through  the  hole  in  the 
neck  and  through  the  stock,  and  secured  above. 

When  only  clock  hammers  are  employed  to  strike 
on  bells,  the  wear  is  so  small  that  the  facility  of  turn- 
ing the  bells  is  of  secondary  importance.  This  plan 
has  the  recommendation  of  great  strength,  and  would 
probably  have  been  largely  adopted  but  for  the  loss 
of  the  canons,  which  are  regarded  by  the  founders 
as  an  ornamental  finish  to  bells,  upon  which  they 
rather  pride  themselves. 

Before  the  Reformation  it  was  usual  to  cast  some 
religious  invocation  on  the  bells  ;  that  custom  was 
replaced  by  the  founders  placing  their  trade  marks, 
or  some  short  sentiment  or  verse,  upon  the  bells, 
either  with  or  without  a  date. 

a.  Moulding  large  bells.  Large  bells  are  moulded 
in  loam  in  the  foundry-pit  located  immediately  in 


124  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

front  of  the  furnace.  The  loam  used  should  be  pale, 
meagre,  and  free  from  coarser  pieces  of  sand  and 
stone.  For  the  core,  as  well  as  for  the  interior  of 
the  cope,  it  should  be  passed  through  a  fine  sieve. 
On  the  other  hand,  red  fat  loam  is  used  for  making 
the  outer  layer  of  the  mould,  it  possessing  greater 
cementing  power.  For  constructing  the  mould  the 
loam  is  mixed  with  horse-dung,  straw,  chaif,  or 
plasterers'  hair,  and  wetted  with  water  so  that  it  can 
be  kneaded  and  readily  applied. 

In  the  centre  of  the  foundry-pit  a  post  designated 
c,  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  (Fig.  2)  is  driven 
into  the  ground. 

Around  this  post  a  wide  platform  of  bricks  is 
built,  upon  which  the  core  is  erected  in  brick.  This 
core  is  hollow  and,  to  enable  the  workman  to  make  a 
fire  in  it,  is  provided  below  with  the  flues  e  e  for  the 
necessary  draught.  About  half  the  height  of  the 
core,  a  flat  iron  rod  g  is  laid  upon  the  post  c  and 
bricked  in  the  wall  of  the  core.  In  the  centre  of 
this  bar  is  a  hole  for  the  reception  of  the  point  of  the 
spindle  h.  The  latter  is  provided  with  two  forked 
arms  &,  between  which  the  pattern  or  templet  is  se- 
cured by  means  of  screws.  This  templet  A  is  a 
board  of  hard  wood  cut  in  the  shape  of  the  interior 
form  of  the  bell,  the  edg°"  being  covered  with  iron, 


BELL-FODNDING. 


125 


brass  or  zinc.  The  templet  serves  as  a  guide  for 
obtaining  the  correct  curve  in  building  up  the  core. 
When  the  core  is  finished  one  workman  covers  it 
with  loam,  while  another  removes  any  excess  of  loam 


FIG.  2.* 

by  turning  the  templet.  The  last  surface  washing  is 
given  by  a  finely-ground  composition  of  clay  and 
brick-dust. 

In  moulding  a  bell,  the  loam  should  be  applied  in 


126  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

layers  and  one  layer  allowed  to  dry  before  applying 
the  next.  To  give,  on  the  one  hand,  the  core  a 
smooth  surface,  and,  on  the  other,  to  insulate  it  from 
the  adjoining  layer  of  loam  of  the  "  thickness,"  it  is 
finally  brushed  over  by  means  of  a  brush  with  finely 
sifted  ashes  mixed  with  water  or  beer.  This  being 
done,  the  templet  is  removed  and  the  core  dried,  a 
fire  being  made  for  this  purpose  in  its  cavity. 

When  the  core  is  dry,  the  layer  representing  the 
actual  bell  is  laid  upon  it  in  loam  sand.  This  layer 
is  called  the  thickness,  and  in  the  illustration,  is 
indicated  by  a  stippled  outline.  It  is  applied  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  core-layers,  one  layer  being  al- 
lowed to  dry  before  applying  the  next:  the  last 
layer  is  made  of  very  fine  loam.  A  thin  coating  of 
a  mixture  of  tallow  and  wax  in  a  fluid  state  is  then 
applied,  and  the  entire  mould  again  compared  with 
the  templet.  Ornamentations,  letters,  etc.,  which 
have  been  previously  moulded  in  modelling  wax,  are 
now  attached,  the  process  being  much  facilitated  by 
the  above-mentioned  coating  of  tallow  and  wax. 

The  moulding  of  the  cope  is  next  proceeded  with. 
Since  the  cope  has  to  stand  a  strong  pressure  from 
the  interior  to  the  exterior,  it  must  be  of  sufficient 
thickness — for  large  bells  at  least  5  to  6  inches — and 
somewhat  thicker  on  the  bottom  than  on  the  top.  ID 


BELL-FOLNDING.  127 

building  up  the  cope,  different  kinds  of  loam  are 
used.  The  first  layers  are  made  of  fine,  sifted  loam 
mixed  with  moulding  sand  or  brick  dust,  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  sifted  horse- dung  and  water.  This 
paste  is  carefully  applied  with  a  brush,  so  that  all 
depressions  in  the  ornamentations,  letters,  etc.,  are 
well  filled  up.  These  thin  layers  must  be  allowed 
to  thoroughly  dry  in  the  air.  Upon  this  coating  is 
laid  ordinary  moulding  loam  applied  either  with  the 
hand  or  trowel.  After  applying  the  first  layer,  a 
fire  is  kept  up  in  the  core,  whereby  the  coating  of 
tallow  and  wax  melts  and  soaks  in  the  loam  mould, 
leaving  an  empty  space  so  that  the  cope  can  be  read- 
ily  lifted  off.  The  last  layers  of  the  cope  are  made 
of  loam  mixed  with  plasterers'  hair,  and  in  order  to 
prevent  tearing,  hemp  ropes  are  frequently  kneaded 
in  all  around. 

The  crown  of  the  bell  is  moulded  over  a  wood  pat- 
tern after  the  spindle  is  removed.     The  iron  or  steel 
staple  for  the  hammer  is  set  in  the  core  in  the  hollow 
left  by  the  spindle.     It  projects  into   the  thickness 
so  as  to  be  cast  into  the  metal. 

When  the  cope  is  finished,  it  is  secured  by  iron 
hoops  and  rods,  which  are  screwed  together,  and 
form,  so  to  say,  an  iron  frame  around  it.  The  cope 
is  then  lifted  off  with  the  assistance  of  a  crane 


128  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNJBR. 

or  tackle,  accurate  marks  having  previously  been 
made  to  serve  as  guides  for  its  replacement.  The 
cope  having  been  lifted  off,  it  is  repaired,  if  neces- 
sary, with  the  above-mentioned  mixture  of  loam  an  I 
moulding  sand  or  brick  dust  made  into  a  paste  with 
sifted  horse-dung  and  water.  It  is  then  dried  and 
heated  to  glowing  to  prepare  it  for  casting.  The 
thickness  upon  the  core  is  now  carefully  removed 
with  hammer  and  chisel.  The  core  is  then  again  re- 
vised, and,  if  necessary,  repaired,  and  finally  given  a 
uniform  coating  of  the  previously  mentioned  mixture 
of  ashes  with  water  or  beer.  The  cavity  of  the  core 
may  be  filled  with  sand,  if  preferred,  but  there  is  no 
harm  done  if  it  is  left  open ;  for  bell-metal  does  not 
generate  much  gas,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  an  ex- 
plosion. The  core  being  thoroughly  dried  and 
warmed  by  a  fire  made  around  it,  the  warm  cope  is 
placed  over  it,  and  after  putting  the  mould  of  the 
crown  in  position,  all  the  joints  are  carefully  closed 
with  loam.  The  mould  of  the  bell  being  now  fin- 
ished, the  pit  is  filled  with  sand  well  rammed  in. 
The  cast-gate  is  on  top  of  the  bell,  or,  if  the  latter 
is  ornamented,  on  one  side  of  it.  Flow-gates  are  of 
no  use  here ;  the  metal  must  be  clean  before  it.  enters 
the  mould. 

D.   Casting  large  bells.     In  casting  large  bells,  a 


BELL-FOUNDING.  129 

reverberate rj  or  air  furnace  is  used  for  melting  the 
metal.  The  furnace  consists  of  two  principal  parts, 
separated  from  each  other,  viz.,  the  fire-chamber  and 
the  bed  or  hearth.  In  the  first,  the  fuel  is  burned, 
and  in  the  latter,  which  is  round  or  oval  and  slightly 
depressed,  the  metal,  spread  out  in  not  too  high  a 
layer,  is  melted.  Opposite  to  the  fire-chamber  in  the 
front  wall  of  the  furnace  is  the  tapping-hole,  closed 
from  the  inside  by  a  plug,  which  is  pushed  in  when 
the  metal  is  melted. 

In  casting  bells  it  is  a  rule  to  melt  the  metai  as 
rapidly  as  possible  and  keep  its  surface  covered  with 
powdered  coal  or  coke.  First  melt  the  copper,  and 
when  that  is  perfectly  liquid  add  the  other  metals. 
When  adding  the  tin,  endeavor  to  push  it  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  melted  copper,  otherwise  a  consider- 
able portion  of  it  will  volatilize  and  burn  before 
combining  with  the  copper.  When  the  metal  is 
melted,  a  sample  is  taken  out  with  a  ladle,  cast  in 
sand,  and  examined  as  to  grain  and  fracture.  If  the 
mixture  proves  successful,  the  melted  metal  is  freed 
from  impurities  and  casting  may  be  proceeded  with. 
If  instead  of  new  metal  old  bell-metal  is  to  be  used, 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  new  bronze  (copper  and  tin) 
to  make  up  the  loss  in  the  old  bronze  has  to  be 
added.  For  melting  4  to  8  hours  are  required,  ac- 


130  BRASS   AND  IRON   FOUNDER. 

cording  to  the  mass  of  metal.  Before  casting,  the 
casting  gutter  must  be  thoroughly  heated  and  then 
cleansed.  The  plug  closing  the  tapping-hole  is  then 
pushed  in,  and  the  liquid  mass  commences  to  flow 
over  the  casting-gutter  into  the  mould  of  the  bell. 
The  air  enclosed  in  the  mould  escapes  through  the 
vent-holes. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  ground- 
plan  and  side-view  of  a  reverberatory  furnace.  The 
line  a  b  represents  the  sole-plate  or  bed  of  the 
furnace  ;  e  e  are  two  vaulted  passages  which  can  be 
closed  by  doors  at  c.  They  serve  for  the  entrance  of 
air  under  the  fire-chamber.  Underneath  the  hearth 
is  a  vault  u ;  h  is  the  fire-chamber  with  the  grate. 
The  fuel  is  thrown  upon  the  grate  through  the  stoke- 
hole </,  while/  represents  the  slide  for  closing  the 
stoke-hole  g.  To  the  right  and  left,  d  and  k  repre- 
sent steps  leading  to  the  stoke-hole  ;  p  is  the  hearth; 
o  o,  at  the  right  and  left  sides,  are  apertures  for 
charging,  stirring,  cleansing  and  observing  the  metal ; 
5,  m  and  n  are  levers  for  raising  the  doors  of  the  work- 
ing apertures  ;  q  q  air-holes  of  the  hearth  ;  t  t  the 
slides  for  closing  the  air-holes  ;  v  the  tapping-hole 
with  the  plug;  and  r  the  casting-gutter.  Several 
modifications  of  this  construction  are  employed,  the 
working  doors,  for  instance,  being  opened  on  the  side 


BELL- FOUNDING. 


131 


a, e 


fc/ 


m 


fr\ 


FIG.  3. 


132  BRASS   AND   IRON   FQUNDEK 

instead  with  levers  over  the  furnace.  Many  bell- 
founders  have  also  furnaces  with  simple  flues  in  the 
vault  without  chimney,  but  they  are  not  suitable  for 
large  castings. 

The  principle  of  the  reverberatory  furnace  is  so  to 
deflect,  or  direct,  the  currents  of  flame  and  heated 
air  that  they  may  exert  their  most  intense  power 
upon  the  metal  lying  on  the  bed  of  the  furnace,  in 
which  respect  the  air-furnace  somewhat  resembles  the 
action  of  the  blow-pipe,  with  which  the  greatest  con- 
centration of  heat  on  a  certain  body  can  be  effected 
in  the  least  time. 

The  casting  being  completed,  it  is  allowed  to  cool 
12  to  24  hours.  The  pit  is  then  emptied,  the  cope 
removed,  and  the  bell  lifted  from  the  pit  with  the 
assistance  of  a  crane  or  tackle.  It  is  then  trans 
ported  to  the  work-room,  where  the  feeding-head  and 
vent-hole  pieces  are  sawed  off,  the  letters  ground  and 
the  ornamentations  chased,  or,  with  ordinary  bells, 
simply  rubbed  with  sand-paper. 

Repairing  cracked  bells.  Cracked  bells,  if  it  is 
not  preferred  to  recast  them,  may  be  repaired  by 
filling  up  the  crack,  or  if  it  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  sound-bow,  by  cutting  it  out.  However,  bells 
repaired  in  this  manner  never  possess  their  original 
pure  andv  beautiful  tone,  and  are  not  very  durable. 


BELL-FOUNDING  138 

The  operation  of  filling  up  the  crack  is  as  follows : 
Saw  or  file  the  edges  of  the  crack  so  as  to  form  an 
empty  triangular  space.  Into  this  space  accurately 
fit  a  piece  of  wood,  which  serves  for  the  preparation 
of  a  mould,  in  which  the  piece  of  bell-metal  to  be  set 
in  is  cast.  Then  fill  and  surround  the*  bell  with 
glowing  coals  so  that  as  uniform  a  heat  as  possible  is 
maintained,  care  being,  however,  taken  to  prevent  the 
melting  of  the  bell.  After  10  to  12  hours  direct  the 
blast  only  upon  the  crack,  lay  the  piece  to  be  set  in, 
which  has  been  previously  cast,  in  the  fire,  and,  when 
it  and  the  edges  of  the  crack  are  nearly  at  a  white 
heat,  remove  the  coals  and  ashes,  scatter  borax  upon 
the  edges,  place  the  piece  in  the  crack  with  the 
assistance  of  tongs,  and  drive  it  in  by  gentle  blows  of 
the 'hammer.  By  hammering,  the  heat  of  the  edges 
is  sufficiently  increased  to  cause  them  to  fuse  to- 
gether with  the  new  piece.  The  bell  is  then  allowed 
to  cool  slowly,  when  the  crack  is  filed  smooth. 

Weight  of  a  few  peals  of  bells.  The  following 
scale  gives  the  average  weight  of  a  few  peals  of  bells, 
of  such  sizes  and  proportions  as  are  recommended  by 
Messrs.  warner  and  Sons  in  their  " Notes  on  Bells:" 


BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDRE. 


Peals  of  3. 

Peals  or  6. 

Weight  of 
tenor. 

Note. 

Weight  of 
peals. 

Weight  of 
tenor. 

Note. 

Weight  of 
peals.3 

cwt.  qr«.  Ibs. 

310 

F  sharp. 

cwt.   qrs.  Ibs. 

810 

cwt.  qrs.  Ibs. 
920 

B  flat. 

cwt.  qrs.  Ibs. 

35     0     0 

3     3  12 

E. 

9     2   14 

10     2     0 

A. 

40     0     0 

430 

E  flat. 

12     0     0 

11     2     0 

G  sharp. 

42     0     0 

5     1     0 

D/ 

13     2     0 

13     2     0 

G. 

50     0     0 

620 

C  sharp. 

15     0     0 

16     0     0 

F. 

60     0     0 

600 

0. 

16     2     0 

18     0     0 

E. 

65     0     0 

Peals  of  4. 

Peals  of  8. 

500 

E  flat. 

16     0     0 

13     2     0 

G. 

60    0    0 

510 

D. 

17     0     0 

15     0     0 

F  sharp. 

68    0    0 

600 

C. 

19     2     0 

IT     3     0 

E. 

75    2    0 

10     0     0 

A. 

28     0     0 

20     0     0 

E. 

85    0    0 

12     2     0 

G. 

36     0     0 

25     0     0 

Eflat. 

100    0    0 

15     0     0 

F  sharp. 

42     0     0 

30     1     0 

E  flat. 

111    2    0 

Peals  of  5. 

600 

C. 

23     2     0 

900 

B  flat. 

30     0     0 

10     2     0 

A. 

32     2     0 

12     0     0 

G  sharp. 

39     0     0 

13     0     0 

G. 

40     0     0 

15     0     0 

F  sharp. 

51     0     0 

Analyses  of  Several  Bell  Metals. 


Rouen. 

1 

tn 

O 

4*5 

3 

Lincoln. 

Westminster. 

71.0 
26.0 
1.2 

72.4 
24.2 

Old 
Peal. 

1610 

Top. 

Bot 

torn. 

72.76 
25.39 
0.33 

74.7 
23.11 
0.9 
Traces 
1.16 
0.58 

75.31 
24.37 
0.11 

75.07 
24.7 
0.12 

Tin  (with  antimony) 

Zinc    
Lead  

1.8 

1.0 
0  4 

Traces 

Traces 

Nickel    

1.77 

Specific  gravity    .    . 

8.76 

8.78 

8.847 

8.  .86  9 

BELL- FOUNDING. 


135 


Lift  of  Large  Bells. 


Weight. 

Diameter. 

Thickness. 

Note. 

Clapper 
or 
hammer. 

Moscow,     1736  \ 
broken,  1737  J    ' 
Another,  1817    .    . 
Three  others  .    .    . 
Novogorod  .... 
Olmiitz 

Tons.  Cwt. 
250  (?) 

110  (?) 
16  to  31 
31           0 
It:     18 
17        14 
15         8£ 
13         15 
12         16 
12         15 
11           3 
11           0 
10         17 
10          15 
10           5 
8           0 
7        12 
7        11 
7        10 
7           3 
7        1J 
6           1 
5           8 
5           4 
4         18 
4         18 
4           8 

40 

Ft.    In. 
22     8 
18 

In. 
23 

&  of  bell 

Vienna,  1711  .    .    . 
Westminster,  1856. 
Erfurt,  1497   .    .    . 
Paris,  1680.    .    .    . 
Montreal,  1847   .    . 
Cologne,  1448.    .    . 
Breslau,  1507  .    .    . 
Goerlitz 

9     10 
9     5£ 
8     7* 
8     7 
8     7 
7     11 

9f 

8 

E 

F 

"  F 
G 

12  cwt. 
6  J  cwt. 

York,  1845  .... 
Bruges,  1680  .    .    . 
St.  Peter's,  Rome  . 
Oxford,  1680   .    .    . 
Lucerne,  1639     .    . 
Halberstadt,  1457  . 

8     4 

8 

F  sharp 
G 

4  cwt. 

7       0 

6* 

"  G  " 

80  Ibs. 

Brussels 

G  sharp 

.... 

Dantzic,  1453  .  .    . 
Lincoln,  1834.    .    . 
St.  Paul's,  1716  .    . 
Ghent 

6  10| 
6     9 

6 

A 
A 

150  Ibs. 
180  Ibs. 

Boulogne  (new)  .  . 
Old  Lincoln,  1610  . 
Fourth  quarter  bell  » 
Westminster,  1857' 

6     3£ 
6     0 

H 

Bflat 
B 

...» 

136  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


CHILL- CASTING. 

CHILL-CASTING  converts  into  white  iron  the  outer 
skin  of  a  casting  made  from  certain  qualities  of  cast 
iron  ;  the  depth  to  which  this  alteration  extends  is 
capable  of  being  regulated.  This  white  cast  iron  is 
veryliard,  brittle  and  crystalline,  and  scarcely  differs, 
either  in  chemical  or  physical  properties,  from  steel, 
except  that  it  cannot  be  "tempered."  In  this  case 
the  whole,  or  nearly  the  whole,  of  the  carbon  con- 
tained in  the  iron  is  in  a  state  of  chemical  combina- 
tioiTwith  it;  whilst  in  the  darker  irons  most  of  the 
carbon  is  diffused  throughout  the  mass  in  the  form  of 
small  particles  or  scales. 

If  the  cast  iron  contains  a  large  portion  of  manga- 
nese, the  amount  of  combined  carbon  may  be  as  much 
as  10  per  cent.,  but  ordinary  pig  iron  seldom  con- 
tains more  than  5  per  cent,  of  combined  carbon. 
These  particles  of  uncombined  carbon  must,  whilst 
the  metal  is  in  a  melted  state,  be  combined  with  it, 
for  being  of  a  much  less  specific  gravity,  less  than 
half,  if  they  were  floating  about  in  separate  particles, 
they  would  necessarily  come  to  the  surface  of  the 
metal.  It  is,  therefore,  assumed  that  the  separation 
of  the  particles  of  carbon  takes  place  at  the  moment 
of  solidification. 


CHILL- CASTING.  137 

If  a  thin  sheet  of  gray  cast  iron  .s  rapidly  cooled, 
it  becomes  whiter,  i.  e.  a  larger  portion  of  its  carbon 
is  held  in  chemical  combination.  White  cast  iron 
may  also  be  obtained  from  gray  pig,  by  alternately 
melting  and  cooling  it  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
When  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  white  iron  direct  from 
the  blast-furnace,  the  proportion  of  fuel  is  reduced 
below  the  amount  usually  allowed  for  the  same  quan- 
tity of  ore  and  blast,  if  a  good  grey  iron  were  re- 
quired. 

These  facts  explain  the  results  which  are  obtained 
by  the  process  of  "  chilling  "  a  casting ;  where  the 
skin  of  the  casting  is  in  contact  with  the  "  chill,"  it 
is,  for  a  certain  distance  inside,  converted  into  a  hard 
white  iron,  whilst  the  interior  of  the  casting  will  re- 
main of  the  same  general  nature,  as  to  color  and 
toughness,  as  the  pig  from  which  it  was  cast.  The 
sudden  cooling  of  the  metal  prevents  the  combined 
carbon  near  the  outer  portion  from  separating, 
whereas  the  cooling  of  the  inner  portion  of  the  metal 
being  more  gradual,  allows  it  to  resume  its  normal 
condition.  The  suspended  particles  of  carbon,  which 
are  held  in  the  metal  near  the  exterior  of  the  casting, 
are  supposed  to  be  forced  inwards  into  the  interior, 
or  still  fluid  portion,  of  the  casting. 

All,  or  nearly  all,  the  carbon  in  the  chilled  portion 


138  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

of  the  casting  is  therefore  in  chemical  combination 
with  the  metal,  whilst  that  in  the  interior  remains 
suspended  as  separate  atoms  or  scales.  Such  is  the 
generally  accepted  theory  of  chilled  castings,  which 
may  indeed  be  open  to  objection.  The  practical  re- 
sult is,  however,  beyond  any  question. 

Chill-castings  are  much  used  for  portions  of  con- 
structions which  were  formerly  made  of  steel  or 
wrought-iron,  such  as  columns,  shafts,  material  for 
railroads,  etc.  If  the  pieces  cast  in  chills  possessed 
the  same  degree  of  hardness  throughout,  they  would, 
on  the  one  hand,  be  difficult  to  work,  and,  on  the 
other,  be  very  brittle.  For  this  reason  it  is  sought 
to  limit  the  effect  of  the  chill  to  the  portion  of  the 
casting  which  requires  hardening,  by  making  the 
moulds  for  the  purpose  of  several  parts,  some  of 


FIG.  5. 


them  consisting  of  sand  and  loam,   which   do   not 
exert  a  hardening  action. 

Thus  in  casting,  for  instance,  the  tongue  of  a  frog 


CHILL-CASTING.  189 

for  a  railroad,  the  upper  portion  of  the  rail  am! 
tongue  is  only  cast  in  chills,  while  the  remainder, 
the  bottom-plate,  lies  in  a  sand- mould  which  stands 
over  the  chill.  Consequently  only  the  upper  portion 
of  the  rail  and  tongue  (Fig.  5,)  consists  of  chilled 
casting,  which  is  converted  into  mottled  pig,  while 
the  bottom-plate  consists  of  fine-grained  grey  iron. 

A  few  examples  of  moulding  may  here  be  given. 

a.  A  chilled  roll,  the  journals  of  which  are  to  re- 
main soft.  The  mould  Fig.  6  consists  of  three 
parts.  The  lower  box  of  iron  or  wood  is  filled  with 
"  new*  sand,"  or  a  strong  composition  of  clay  and 
sand,  in  which  a  wooden  pattern  is  moulded,  which 
forms  the  coupling  and  the  neck  of  the  roll.  The 
middle  part  of  the  mould  is  the  chill,  a  heavy  iron 
cylinder  well  bored.  The  upper  part  of  the  mould 
again  consists  of  a  box,  but  is  higher  than  the  lower 
box,  so  as  to  make  room  for  the  head  in  which  the 
impurities  of  the  iron,  sullage,  are  to  be  gathered. 
The  two  boxes  with  their  contents  of  sand  must  be 
well  dried.  The  chill  is  the  important  part  in  this 
mould.  It  ought  to  be  at  least  three  times  as  heavy 
as  the  roll  which  is  to  be  cast  in  it,  and  provided 
with  wrought-iron  hoops  to  prevent  its  falling  to 
pieces,  for  it  will  certainly  crack  if  not  made  of  very 
strong  cast-iron.  The  iron  of  which  a  chill  is  cast 


MO 


BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


should  be  strong,  fine-grained,  and  not  too  grey. 
Grey  iron  is  too  bad  a  conductor  of  heat ;  it  is  liable 
to  melt  with  the  cast.  Iron  that  makes  a  good  roll 


FIG.  6. 


will  make  a  good  chill.  The  face  of  the  mould  is 
blackened  like  any  other  mould,  but  the  blackening 
must  be  stronger  than  in  other  cases,  to  resist  more 


CHILL-CASTING.  141 

the  abrasive  motion  of  the  fluid  metal.  The  chill  h 
blackened  with  a  thin  coating  of  very  fine  black-lead, 
mixed  with  the  purest  kind  of  clay.  This  coating 
must  be  very  thin,  or  it  will  scale  off  before  it  is 
of  service. 

The  most  important  point  in  making  chilled  rolls 
is  the  mode  of  casting  them,  and  the  quality  of  iron 


FIG.  7. 

osed.  To  cast  a  roll,  whether  a  chilled  roll  or  any 
other,  from  above,  would  cause  a  failure.  All  rolls 
must  be  cast  from  below.  The  dotted  lines  in  the 
illustration  (Fig.  6)  indicate  the  cast-gate  and  chan- 
nel as  it  is  seen  from  above.  A  cast-iron  pipe,  lined 
inside  with  mass  and  thoroughly  dried,  is  generally 
used.  It  is  screwed  to  the  moulding  box  for  the  lower 
journal  of  the  roll  and,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines, 
continues  to  a  certain  distance  around  the  latter. 
Fig.  7  shows  a  section  through  the  moulding  box 
in  the  direction  of  A  A.  From  it  it  will  be  seen  that 


142  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

the  channel  of  the  cast-gate  touches  the  mould  in  a 
tangential  direction.  In  casting  fluid  metal  in  this 
gate,  the  metal  will  assume  a  rotary  motion  around 
the  axis  of  the  roll,  or  the  axis  of  the  mould.  This 
motion  will  carry  all  the  heavy  and  pure  iron  to- 
wards the  periphery,  or  the  face  of  the  mould,  and 
the  sullage  will  concentrate  in  the  centre.  It  is  a 
bad  plan  to  lead  the  current  of  hot  iron  upon  the 
chill,  for  it  would  burn  a  hole  into  it,  and  melt  chill 
and  roll  in  that  place  together.  The  quality  of  the 
melted  iron  modifies  in  some  measure  the  form  of  the 
gate,  stiff  or  cold  iron  requiring  a  rapid  motion,  while 
fluid,  thin  iron  must  have  less  motion,  or  it  is  liable 
to  adhere  to  the  chill.  The  roll  must  be  kept  in  the 
mould  until  perfectly  cool,  but  the  cooling  may  be 
accelerated  by  digging  up  the  sand  around  the  chill. 
In  considering  the  advisability  of  the  greater  or 
less  depth  of  chill,  estimate  the  extent  to  which  the 
casting  may  be  worn  or  turned  before  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  replace  it.  For  castings  that  will  have 
much  surface-wear,  such  as  in  rolling  metal,  or  crush- 
ing minerals,  allowance  should  be  made  in  the  depth 
of  the  chill  for  the  removal  of  the  exterior  of  the 
rolls,  by  their  being  repeatedly  turned  in  the  lathe, 
as  their  surfaces  become  worn  or  injured  in  use.  At 
the  same  time,  it  must  be  remembered,  that  the 


CHILL-CASTING.  148 

greater  the  depth  to  which  the  chill  is  carried,  the 
more  brittle  is  the  casting.  The  chief  strength  of  the 
casting  is  in  its  tough,  unaltered  metal  beneath  the 
hard,  chilled  surface.  Hence,  chilling  to  a  greater 
depth  than  necessary  should  be  avoided,  especially  in 
cases  where  strength  is  required  in  the  castings  to  re- 
sist transverse  and  other  strains. 

In  casting  large  chilled  rolls,  the  moulds  for  the 
ends  and  necks  should  be  of  dry  sand,  or  loam  prop- 
erly built  up  and  connected  with  the  iron  chill  for 
the  roll  itself.  The  mass  of  metal  in  the  chill  largely 
influences  the  depth  of  the  chilled  portion  of  the 
casting.  It  is  necessary  not  only  that  it  should  be 
sufficient  to  reduce,  in  a  few  minutes,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  iron  on  the  surface  from  the  temperature 
at  which  it  is  poured — say  2500°  F. — to  that  of  soli- 
dification— say  1000°  F. — when  it  is  bright  red  in 
daylight,  but  also  that  it  should  be  capable  of  abs^rb- 
ing  the  heat  which  will  radiate  from  the  interior  of 
the  casting,  so  ao  to  prevent  the  solidified  and  chiUed 
surface  from  bein>$  remelted  by  the  radiation  of  in- 
ternal heat. 

b.  Chill-mould  for  a  railroad  wheel.  In  this 
case  it  must  be  considered  that  only  the  rim  is  to  be 
hard,  while  the  spokes  and  hub  are  to  show  the  con- 
stitution of  ordinary  cast  iron  sa  that  they  can  be 


144  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

I 

worked  and  are  less  exposed  to  the.  danger  of  break- 
ing. The  mould,  Fig.  8,  also  consists  of  three  parts. 
The  middle  part  is  the  chill  $,  I  is  the  lower  part, 
III  the  upper  part  with  the  east-gate  E,  and  K  the 
core  for  the  hub  aperture.  The  lower  part  is  a  box 
of  common  round  form,  merely  to  hold  the  sand  and 
give  support  to  the  centre  core  and  the  middle  box. 


FIG.  8. 

The  upper  box  is  of  similar  form,  also  round. 
The  middle  box  S,  is  a  solid  ring,  cast  of  mottled 
iron  and  bored  out  upon  a  turning  lathe,  giving  its 
interior  the  reverse  of  the  exact  outer  form  of  the 
rim  of  the  wheel.  This  middle  box  ought  to  be  at 
least  as  heavy  as  the  wheel  is  to  be,  after  casting,  and 
it  is  preferable  if  it  has  two  or  three  times  that 
weight.  All  the  three  boxes  are  joined  by  lugs  and 
pins  as  usual,  and  the  latter  should  fit  well  without 
being  too  tight.  The  chief  difficulty  in  casting  these 
chilled  wheels,  is  to  make  the  cast  of  a  uniform 


CHILL-CASTING.  145 

strain  to  prevent  the  wheels  from  breaking,  and 
wheels  with  spokes  or  arms  are  very  liable  to  do  this. 

At  present  most  of  these  wheels  are  cast  with 
corrugated  discs  or  plates.  In  this  way  the  hub 
may  be  cast  solid,  and  the  wheel  is  not  so  liable  to 
be  subjected  to  an  unequal  strain  as  when  cast  with 
spokes.  In  such  plate-wheels  the  whole  space  be- 
tween the  rim  and  the  hub  is  filled  by  metal.  The 
rim  of  a  good  wheel  should  be  as  hard  as  hardened 
steel  at  its  periphery,  but  soft  and  grey  in  its  central 
parts.  The  first  requisite  is  more  safely  attained  by 
having  a  heavy  chill  ;  but  if  the  chill  is  too  heavy, 
the  inner  parts  are  apt  to  suffer  from  the  cooling 
qualities  of  the  chill.  Success  in  this  branch  of 
founding  depends  very  much  on  the  quality  of  the 
iron  of  which  the  wheels  are  cast.  Soon  after  cast- 
ing such  wheels  it  is  advisable  to  open  the  mould, 
and  remove  the  sand  from  the  central  portion,  so  as 
to  make  it  cool  faster.  This  precaution  saves  many 
castings,  not  only  in  this  particular  case,  but  in 
many  other  instances.  Uniformity  in  cooling  is  as 
necessary  to  success  as  good  moulding. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  largest 

establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  chilled  wheels 

in  the  United  States,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 

work  is  advanced  from  stage  to  stage :  The  foundry, 

10 


146  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

which  is  of  course  the  most  important  portion  of  the 
whole  works,  is  provided  with  two  lines  of  rails  run- 
ning down  its  whole  length,  except  opposite  the  fur- 
naces. The  rails  are  laid  to  a  gauge  of  about  10 
feet,  and  upon  them  are  placed  12  light  travelling 
cranes,  with  a  platform  attached  to  the  centre -post, 
and  upon  which  the  man  working  the  crane  stands 
and  controls  its  movements,  both  in  hauling  the 
moulds  and  ladles,  and  in  moving  the  crane  from 
place  to  place  upon  the  line,  the  crane  being  geared 
for  travelling.  The  floor  of  the  foundry  is  so  laid 
out  that  there  is  room  on  either  side  of  both  pairs  of 
rails  for  a  row  of  moulds,  and  in  the  centre  of  the 
building  is  a  path  about  4  feet  wide.  Against  one 
side  of  the  building,  and  in  the  centre  of  its  length, 
are  five  cupolas,  three  of  4  feet  6  inches  internal 
diameter,  and  two  smaller  ones  of  18  inches 
diameter.  The  former  are  employed  in  melting  the 
iron  for  the  wheels,  the  latter  chiefly  for  experi- 
mental purposes.  The  three  cupolas  are  tapped  into 
converging  channels,  all  running  into  one  large  tip- 
ping reservoir,  from  which  the  small  ladles  are  sup- 
plied. The  blast  to  the  cupolas  is  furnished  by  a 
vertical  blowing  engine,  with  two  blowing  cylinders, 
one  at  the  top  of  the  machine  and  one  at  the  bottom, 
with  the  steam-cylinder  between  the  two. 


CHILL-CASTING.  147 

The  mixing  of  the  irons  for  the  cupok  is  the  most 
important  and  difficult  operation  in  the  whole  course 
of  manufacture.  Besides  the  steel-scrap  nothing  but 
charcoal  pig  iron  is  employed,  and  of  this  from 
twelve  to  twenty  different  kinds,  all  of  the  highest 
class,  are  used  in  varying  proportions.  But  these 
mixtures  have  to  be  altered  frequently,  owing  to 
irregularities  in  the  nature  of  the  metal,  and  daily 
tests  are  made,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  what 
changes,  if  any,  have  to  be  introduced  into  the  next 
day's  work.  The  proportions  of  the  mixture  being 
decided  upon,  the  cupolas  are  charged,  a  ton  of  coal 
being  first  put  into  the  bed  of  each  furnace.  The 
charge  is  then  carefully  loaded  upon  trucks  upon  a 
weighing  platform.  Piles  of  the  various  pigs  are 
placed  in  their  proper  order  around  the  truck,  and 
there  is  a  drum  upon  the  weighing  machine,  on  which 
a  sheet  of  paper  is  placed,  and  the  weight  of  each 
different  pig,  in  proper  order,  is  written  upon  it. 
For  instance,  the  workman  commences  with  250  Ibs. 
of  coal  in  his  truck;  he  then  places  125  Ibs.  of  old 
steel  rails,  125  Ibs.  of  cinder  pig,  350  Ibs.  of  old 
wheels,  and  so  on  through  the  long  list  of  charcoal 
pig  iron  employed,  the  old  material  being  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  The  weighing  platform 
is  so  arranged  as  to  record  the  accumulating  weights 


14b  BRASS    AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

as  the  drum  revolves,  bringing  before  the  workman 
the  name  and  quantity  of  each  successive  ingredient 
which  he  takes  from  its  respective  heap  before  him. 
As  soon  as  it  is  loaded  the  truck  is  raised  to  the  top 
of  the  cupola  by  a  hydraulic  lift.  The  moulds,  when 
ready,  are  placed  down  the  building  in  four  rows, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  two  lines  of  rail  upon  which 
the  cranes  run.  The  patterns  used  are  almost  all  in 
iron,  and  the  chills  in  the  moulds  are  of  cast  iron. 
One  workman  can,  on  an  average,  mould  ten  wheels 
per  day,  but  all  failures  in  the  casting  arising  from 
any  carelessness  in  moulding,  are  charged  to  him  on 
a  rapidly  increasing  scale. 

Before  the  metal  in  the  cupola  is  ready  to  run,  a 
charcoal  fire  is  lighted  in  the  previously  mentioned 
receiver,  in  order  to  warm  it,  and  also  that  when 
filled  the  metal  may  be  covered  with  charcoal  and 
oxidation  checked.  In  a  similar  manner  the  ladles, 
of  which  there  are  a  very  large  number  employed, 
have  burning  charcoal  placed  in  them,  and  they  are 
internally  coated  in  the  usual  way.  These  ladles  are 
cylindrical  pots  made  of  sheet  iron  and  mounted  each 
on  a  pair  of  wheels  for  facility  of  transport.  On  the 
sides  of  each  ladle  are  two  sockets,  into  one  of  which 
the  end  of  a  long  iron  handle  is  inserted  for  hauling 
it  along  the  floor.  Also  at  each  end  of  the  axle  is  a 


CHILL-CASTING.  149 

square  hole,  into  which  is  placed  the  end  jf  a  handle 
with  forked  ends.  The  ladle  being  run  up  to  the  re- 
ceiver, the  latter  is  tipped  over  by  the  gearing  at- 
tatched  to  it,  and  the  ladle  is  charged  ;  it  is  then 
brought  along  the  floor  to  the  crane,  which  takes 
hold  of  it.  The  two  square-ended  handles  before  men- 
tioned are  inserted  in  the  holes  in  the  axles,  the 
ladle  is  raised,  and  the  iron  poured  into  the  mould. 
The  chilled  portion  of  the  wheel  sets  almost  as  soon 
as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  chills,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  after  the  casting  has  been  made,  the  flasks 
are  removed,  the  sand  is  knocked  away,  and  the  red- 
hot  wheel  is  placed  on  a  truck  to  be  taken  to  the 
annealing  pits.  This  process  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  series.  If  the  wheel  be  allowed  to 
cool  in  the  open  air,  severe  internal  strains  are 
created  which  will  sometimes  be  sufficient  to  destroy 
the  casting,  and  open  air  cooling  was  the  chief  cause 
of  failure  in  the  early  periods  of  this  class  of  wheel 
making. 

The  annealing  ovens  are  placed  at  one  end  of  the 
foundry,  and  below  the  floors,  the  tops  of  the  ovens 
being  at  that  level.  Besides  these  ovens  of  very 
large  diameters  for  extra-sized  wheels,  chilled  tires, 
etc.,  there  are  48  pits  ranged  in  6  rows  of  8  each. 
These  rows  are  divided  into  pairs,  each  pair  of  16 


150  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

pits  being  devoted  to  the  reception  of  one  dky's  pro- 
duction, the  period  required  for  annealing  being  3 
days.  By  this  arrangement,  when  the  last  two  sows 
of  ovens  are  charged,  the  first  two  rows  can  be 
emptied  and  refilled,  so  that  the  work  proceeds 
without  interruption  and  in  regular  rotation.  Two 
hydraulic  cranes  with  the  booms  revolving  upon  a 
fixed  post,  are  placed  upon  the  floor  and  command 
the  whole  area  occupied  by  the  ovens.  The  boom 
of  each  crane  is  made  double,  and  upon  it  runs  to 
and  fro  a  small  carriage,  from  which  hangs  the 
chain,  carrying  at  the  lower  end  the  hooks  by  which 
the  wheels  are  handled.  This  attachment  consists  of 
three  arms  with  flattened  ends  turned  over  so  as  to 
grip  the  wheel.  The  upper  ends  of  these  arms  are 
hinged  together,  and  as  they  tend  always  to  fall  in- 
ward, they  hold  the  wheel  tightly,  but  by  moving  a 
single  attachment  the  arms  are  thrown  outward 
when  it  is  desired  to  release  the  wheel.  The  motion 
of  the  cranes  is  controlled  by  one  man,  fixed  stops 
being  provided  on  the  guiding  apparatus,  so  that 
when  the  crane  is  adjusted  for  filling  one  oven  it  re- 
mains in  that  position  till  it  is  thrown  over  to  the 
next. 

The  ovens  or  annealing  pits  are  cylinders  of  sheet- 
iron  J  inch  thick,  about  66  inches  in  diameter,  and 


CHILL-CASTING.  151 

of  sufficient  depth  to  contain  easily  18  wheels  with 
cast-iron  distance  pieces  between  them.  They  are 
lined  with  brick-work,  and  being  of  considerable 
depth,  they  descend  into  a  lower  floor.  The  lower 
parts  are  enclosed  in  a  large  rectangular  chamber, 
one  for  each  set  of  ovens.  Within  this  chamber, 
and  for  a  short  distance  above  it,  fire  brick  is  used 
instead  of  ordinary  brick-work  as  in  the  upper 
portions,  and  within  the  cylinder  a  circular  founda- 
tion of  brick-work  is  set,  upon  which  are  placed  the 
wheels  on  being  lowered  by  the  crane.  The  whole 
of  this  weight  then  is  transferred  direct  to  the 
foundation  of  the  building.  At  the  end  of  each  of 
the  three  rectangular  chambers  already  mentioned  is 
a  furnace,  and  each  chamber  is  divided  down  the 
whole  of  its  length  by  a  perforated  flue  ;  through 
these  perforations  the  heat  from  the  furnace  passes 
and  enters  the  lower  ends  of  the  ovens.  These  fur- 
naces are  required  to  prevent  the  too  sudden  cooling 
of  the  castings,  but  only  J  ton  of  coal  is  burned  for 
each  full  day's  production.  Flues  leading  to  the 
chimney  carry  off  the  heated  gases  from  the  upper 
parts  of  the  ovens,  and  so  the  process  of  cooling  is 
thus  very  gradually  carried  on,  until  at  the  end  of 
three  days  the  wheels  are  ready  for  removal.  The 
three  large  annealing  pits  mentioned  above  are  some- 


152  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

what  differently  arranged.  To  save  room  they  are 
not  carried  down  so  low  as  the  other  ovens,  but  ter- 
minate at  a  height  of  about  7  feet  above  the  floor, 
each  being  supported  upon  a  central  column.  When 
they  are  used,  a  fire  is  lighted  in  the  bottom  of  each 
pit,  the  wheels  are  put  in  and  covered  over,  and  the 
oven  is  allowed  gradually  to  cool. 

On  being  removed  from  the  pit  the  wheels  are 
taken  into  the  cleaning  and  testing  room.  Here  the 
sand  is  removed  and  the  wheels  tested  by  hammering 
under  the  sledge  as  well  as  by  a  small  hammer, 
while  the  tread  is  cut  at  intervals  by  a  chisel.  The 
heavy  blows  to  which  the  wheel  is  subjected  never 
fail  in  detecting  faults  when  such  exist,  and  when 
they  are  discovered  the  wheel  is  removed  to  be 
broken  up.  About  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole  pro 
duction  is  rejected,  but  occasionally  this  proportion 
is  very  much  higher. 

In  order  to  keep  the  quality  of  the  wheels  up  to 
the  desired  standard,  a  large  number  of  test-pieces 
are  cast  every  day  and  submitted  to  examination. 
By  this  means  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  nature 
of  the  wheels,  the  character  of  the  chill,  and  other 
points,  is  obtained ;  the  data  are  carefully  recorded, 
and  if  the  tests  are  satisfactory,  the  wheels  corres- 
ponding to  the  test-piece  are  delivered  into  stock. 


OHILL-CASTING. 


158 


If  not,  they  are  returned  to  be  broken  up.  The 
sound  wheels  are  finally  taken  to  the  machine-shop, 
where  they  are  bored,  and,  if  desired,  fitted  with 
tneir  axles.  The  tools,  therefore,  in  this  shop  are 


Fig.  9. 

few  in  number,  consisting  of  three  boring  machines, 
a,  press  for  forcing  the  wheels  on  or  for  drawing  them 
off  the  axles,  and  a  number  of  lathes. 

The  average  lif°  of  a  chilled  cast  iron  wheel  of 


154  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

first  quality  is  asserted  to  be  50,000  miles  for  passen- 
ger and  100,000  miles  for  freight  traffic. 

c.  For  the  preparation  of  hollow  chill- castings, 
F.  Tellander  has  patented  a  process  which  consists  in 
•casting  around  a  metallic  core,  which  as  soon  as  the 
iron  begins  to  solidify  is  removed  from  below.  The 
method  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  Around  the  (dark)  iron 
core  Jc,  is  cast  the  (dark  hatched)  wheel- box  r,  the 
inner  surface  of  which  is  to  be  hardened.  The 
moulding-box/  is  filled  with  sand  and  the  cast-gate 
e  and  the  vent  w  are  arranged.  After  the  solidifica- 
tion of  the  casting,  the  leaver  h  is  withdrawn  and  the 
core  Jc  falls  into  the  vessel  (r,  which  is  filled  with 
water. 


CASTING  WITHOUT  CORE. 

THIS  mode  of  casting  would,  no  doubt,  be  used 
more  if  it  were  not  connected  with  a  peculiar  disad- 
vantage. Casting  without  core  is  executed  by  pour- 
ing the  fluid  metal  (zinc,  tin,  lead,  or  alloys  of  these 
metals)  into  a  mould,  generally  of  brass,  with  a  com- 
paratively large  gate,  whereby  the  gate  must,  of 
course,  be  kept  uppermost,  just  the  reverse  of  the 
position  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  10).  The 
mould  b  entirely  filled  with  liquid  metal  is  then  more 


CASTING  -WITHOUT   CORE.  155 

or  less  quickly  inverted,  so  that  it  comes  in  the 
position  shown  in  the  illustration.  By  not  allowing 
time  for  complete  congelation,  the  larger  portion  of 
the  metal  poured  in  will  run  out,  whilst  a  crust  c  of 


Fig.  10. 

more    >r  less   thickness  remains  in  the    mould  and 

forms  a  casting  useful  for  many  industrial  purposes. 

To  obtain  solid  castings  free  from  blowholes,  the 

metal  must  stand  under  a  certain  pressure,  which  is 


156  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

also  required  for  other  castings.  For  this  purpose  a 
"dead-head"  (riser  or  sullage  piece)  is  used,  and  as 
the  dead-head  is  also  hollow,  after  inverting  the 
mould,  this  portion  of  the  casting  is  called  the  "fun- 
nel." In  the  illustration  a  small  bust  A  is  given  as 
an  example  of  casting  without  a  core ;  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  finished  bust  is  indicated  by  the  curved 
line  dj  B  is  the  dead-head  or  funnel  which  simply 
serves  for  making  the  metal  in  A  compact.  After 
removing  the  casting  from  the  mould,  the  dead-head 
or  funnel  B  is  separated  from  the  casting  by  sawing, 
filing,  or  other  suitable  mechanical  treatment  along 
the  edge  of  d.  The  metals  chiefly  used  for  casting 
without  a  core  possess,  however,  the  peculiarity  of 
being  worked  with  difficulty,  especially  zinc  and 
many  zinc  alloys,  fouling  the  saws  and  files,  so  that 
the  separation  of  the  dead-head  from  the  casting  be- 
comes a  difficult  matter.  This  is  the  chief  reason 
why  casting  without  core  is  comparatively  little  in 
use. 

The4  necessity  of  removing  the  dead-head  or  funnel 
by  sawing,  filing,  etc.,  is,  however,  entirely  done 
away  with  by  working  in  the  mould  5,  along  the  edge 
of  dy  a  groove  e.  This  groove  is  filled  with  a  mate- 
rial which  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  but  will  stand 
a  high  temperature,  asbestos  being  especially  recom- 


CASTING  ON  TO  OTHER  METALS.      157 

mended  for  the  purpose.  Now,  while  the  fluid 
metal,  when  poured  in,  congeals  on  the  metallic  walls 
of  the  mould,  they  being  good  conductors  of  heat, 
congelation  does  not  take  place  along  the  line  of 
the  asbestos,  the  metal  poured  in  remaining  fluid,  or 
at  least  much  more  fluid  on  this  point  than  on  other 
places  of  the  mould.  By  now  inverting  the  mould, 
the  strip  i  lying  opposite  to  the  groove  e  filled  with 
asbestos  runs  out  together  with  the  metal,  filling  the 
mould,  and  when  taking  the  mould  apart  the  dead- 
head or  funnel  B  will  be  found  separated  from  the 
actual  casting,  or  connected  with  it  only  by  a  very 
ty  in  film,  which  can  be  readily  severed. 


CASTING  ON  TO  OTHER  METALS. 

IT  is  occasionally  desired  to  unite  other  metals  by 
means  of  cast-iron,  or  to  fix  ornamental  castings  on 
to  light  work  made  of  wrought-iron  or  steel. 

Such  a  process  cannot  be  practised  with  cast-iron 
upon  any  of  the  other  useful  metals  than  cast-iron, 
wrought-iron,  or  steel,  as  all  the  other  metals,  com- 
monly used,  have  melting  points  so  much  below  that 
ot  cast-iron  that  they  would  not  bear  coming  in  con- 
tajt  with  liquid  cast-iron. 

Sometimes  non- metallic  substances,  such  as  grind- 


158  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

stones,  etc.,  are  held  in  shape  by  rings  or  bands  of 
iron  cast  round  them. 

When  iron  is  cast  upon  or  around  solid  wrought- 
iron  or  steel,  certain  changes  are  brought  about  upon 
these  metals.  The  cast-iron  when  thus  brought  into 
contact  with  the  comparatively  cool  surface  of  the 
solid  wrought-iron  or  steel  will  of  course  be  " chilled" 
at  and  around  all  points  of  contact.  It  will  there- 
fore be  harder,  more  brittle,  and  much  less  tough 
in  these  parts,  and  this  result  will  occur  wherever 
liquid  cast-iron  comes  in  contact  with  either  solid 
cast-iron,  or  wrought-iron,  or  steel. 

When  wrought-iron  is  employed  it  is  found  to  un- 
dergo a  certain  amount  of  deterioration,  both  in 
toughness  and  cohesion,  becoming  of  less  value  for 
structural  purposes  where  those  qualities  are  re- 
quired. Steel  suffers  in  the  same  manner,  but  to  a 
much  less  extent.  A  bar  of  cast-iron  cast  around  a 
core  of  wrought  iron  will  be  found  little,  if  anything, 
stronger  than  a  simple  bar  of  cast-iron  of  the  same 
size.  Consequently  where  the  full  strength  and 
toughness  of  these  metals  are  required,  "casting  on" 
should  be  avoided,  and  especially  in  any  work  which 
will  be  exposed  to  sudden  shocks,  or  varying  strains. 

But  a  very  large  number  of  useful  and  ornamental 
articles,  requiring  little  absolute  strength,  can  be 


CASTING   ON   TO   OTHER   METALS.  15(J 

most  readily  produced  by  the  process  of  casting  on, 
such  as  hand-rails,  window  frames,  panels,  hat  and 
umbrella  stands,  bedsteads,  or  ornamental  gates. 

One  well-known  application  of  this  process  is 
Moline's  invention  for  the  combination  of  wrought 
and  cast-iron  in  the  manufacture  of  window  frames. 
The  sash-bars  are  formed  of  wrought-iron,  rolled  of 
any  light  and  convenient  section,  suited  to  receive 
glass ;  these  bars  are  united  by  ornamented  cast-iron 


An  iron  pattern  is  first  made,  from  which  a  sand 
mould  is  obtained,  the  wrought-iron  bars  are  cut  to 
the  required  lengths,  and  placed  in  the  mould,  with 
their  ends  nearly  touching;  over  these  ends  the 
mould  of  the  boss  is  placed,  which  must  be  sufficiently 
large  to  cover  them,  so  that  when  cast  on,  the  bosses 
shall  firmly  unite  the  wrought-iron  bars.  These 
windows  can  be  readily  made  of  any  usual  size  and 
shape,  and  are  easily  fixed.  They  are  light  in  ap- 
pearance, and  combine  the  strength  of  wrought-iron 
with  the  ornamental  character,  which  can  easily  be 
obtained  by  the  addition  of  cast-iron  flowers,  scrolls, 
armorial  bearings,  or  other  ornaments. 

For  ornamenting  wrought-iron  railings,  two  ways 
of  applying  cast-iron  may  be  mentioned.  Either  the 
wrought-iror  bars  may  be  placed  m  the  moulds,  and 


1GO  BRASS    AND    IROtf    FOUNDER. 

the  ornaments  cast  round  their  ends,  or  the  orna- 
ments may  be  cast  in  green-sand  moulds,  cored  out 
to  fit  the  wrought-iron  hars,  on  to  which  they  are 
afterwards  fixed  by  an  alloy  of  zinc  and  lead.  Lead 
alone  is  to  be  avoided,  as  it  sets  up  a  galvanic  action, 
and  assists  the  formation  of  rust. 

In  designing  cast-iron  railings  it  will  be  well  to 
adopt  outlines  in  which  the  metal  will  not  be  unfairly 
strained,  by  the  union  of  very  light  and  heavy  pieces 
in  the  same  casting.  Discard  all  very  fine  orna- 
mental work  for  streets  where  there  is  much  traffic, 
as  accident  or  mischief  will  very  shortly  spoil  the 
beauty  of  the  work,  which  cannot  be  repaired. 
Ornamental  cast  iron  work  of  an  intricate  character 
is  only  in  place  where  it  can  be  seen  to  advantage 
and  is  not  exposed  to  violence. 

Exposed  to  the  air  in  large  cities,  cast-iron  rail- 
ings are  much  more  durable  than  those  of  wrought- 
iron. 

If  cast-iron  chill  moulds  are  used  for  the  orna- 
mental castings,  the  ornaments  will  naturally  be 
rather  brittle;  in  most  cases  this  will  be  found  of 
little  consequence,  but  where  it  is  desired  to  avoid 
brittleness,  the  work  can  be  placed  in  an  annealing 
oven,  when  the  cast-iron  will  be  made  into  malleable 
cast-iron,  without  prejudicially  affecting  the  wrought- 


CASTING    ON    TO    OTHER    METALS.  163 

iron,  if  any  is  used  in  conjunction  with  the  cast-iron, 
as  is  frequently  the  case. 

Burning-on  is  also  frequently  practised,  for  the 
purpose  of  ornamenting  wrought-iron  with  scrolls, 
volutes  or  twisted  forms.  Loam  moulds  are  made, 
and  when  thoroughly  dried,  are  applied  to  that 
portion  of  the  wrought-iron  which  it  is  wished  to 
burn  on  to  ;  cast-iron  is  then  poured  through  the 
moulds  until  the  wrought-iron  is  brought  to  a  weld- 
ing heat ;  pouring  is  then  ceased,  and  the  cast-iron, 
when  cooled  down,  is  found  firmly  affixed  to  the 
wrought-iron. 

For  ornamental  cast-iron  railings  which  are  de 
signed  with  comparatively  heavy  pilasters  and  bars, 
having  the  intervals  between  them  filled  in  with  light 
ornamental  work,  the  two  should  not  be  cast  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  otherwise  the  light  work  will  be 
almost  certain  to  break  away  from  the  heavy,  owing 
to  the  unequal  contraction  in  cooling.  The  orna- 
mental work  should  be  cast  first,  of  fine,  soft,  fluid 
iron,  and  be  provided  with  small-fitting  pieces  or 
lugs,  at  convenient  points,  for  fixing  to  the  heavy 
bars  or  uprights.  Coat  these  lugs  on  the  fine  work 
with  clay  and  black- wash,  place  it  in  a  sand  mould, 
and  cast  the  heavy  work  round  it.  By  so  doing  the 
iron  will  not  be  liable  to  fracture  from  unequal  con- 
11 


162  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

traction  and  expansion.  Burning-on  -S  sometimes  of 
service  in  repairing  a  broken  or  damaged  casting,  but 
the  process  is  neither  applicable  to  fine,  delicate 
work,  nor  to  cases  where  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
original  castings  must  be  strictly  preserved,  as  in  a 
cast-iron  wheel,  which  would  probably  be  twisted  out 
of  shape  by  the  expansion  and  subsequent  contrac- 
tion of  the  metal  during  the  operation  of  burning-on/ 
But  a  piece  of  machine  framing,  the  necks  of  rolls, 
or  a  standard  which  has  been  broken  or  found  de- 
fective, may  be  repaired  as  follows:  First  cut  away 
the  defective  parts  down  to  the  sound  metal,  build  a 
coke-fire  round  the  part  of  the  casting  which  is  to  be 
repaired  until  it  is  brought  to  a  bright  red  heat,  then 
dust  over  the  surface  of  the  cut  metal  with  powdered 
'glass  or  borax.  Then  apply  a  hollow  loam  mould  of 
the  desired  part  to  the  casting,  properly  secured  in 
position,  and  provided  with  a  hole  for  the  exit  of  the 
metal.  Pour  very  hot  liquid  cast-iron  into  the  mould, 
and  allow  it  to  flow  away  until  the  cut  surface  of  the 
original  metal  of  the  casting  can  be  felt  with  an  iron 
bar  to  have  become  soft  and  pasty  by  contact  with 
the  hot  liquid  iron.  Then  stop  the  exit  hole,  and 
allow  the  metal  in  the  mould  to  set.  If  the  opera- 
tion has  been  properly  performed  the  casting  should 
ring,  when  struck,  with  the  same  sound  as  a  single 


CASTING  ON  TO  OTHER  METALS.      163 

good  casting,  thus  showing  that  the  old  and  new 
metal  are  perfectly  united. 

Where  portions  of  large  castings  require  to  be  re- 
moved for  this  burning-on  process,  the  easiest  mode 
of  doing  it  is  to  cut  the  casting  while  at  a  cherry  red 
heat,  with  a  rapidly  revolving  circular  saw,  such  as 
is  used  for  cutting  off  the  "  crop-ends "  of  rolled 
rails. 

Cast  iron  may  also  be  bent  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent with  safety  at  a  cherry-red  heat,  which  quality 
is  occasionally  of  service  in  remedying  variations 
from  the  desired  shape,  arising  from  contraction  in 
cooling.  The  bench 'or  surface  on  which  such  bend- 
ing is  to  be  performed  must  be  constructed  of  non- 
conducting material,  such  as  baked  fire-clay,  other- 
wise the  iron  will  part  with  its  heat  too  suddenly, 
and  break  rather  than  bend. 

Holes  occur  occasionally  on  the  surface  of  a  cast- 
ing, which  although  not  of  sufficient  importance  to 
make  it  advisable  to  reject  or  break  up  the  casting, 
are  unsightly.  Liquid  cast-iron  may  be  poured  into 
such  holes,  the  superfluous  metal  being  removed  by 
an  iron  straight-edge.  It  is  usually  preferred,  how- 
ever, to  fill  up  these  cavities  with  an  alloy  having  a 
similar  appearance  to  the  cast-iron,  but  being  much 
more  fusible.  One  such  alloy  consists  of  antimony 


164  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

69  parts  by   weight,  copper  16,  tin  2,  recited  to 
gether,  to  which  add  afterwards  lead  13    parts  by 
weight.     Another  alloy  for  the  same   purpose  con- 
sists  of  antimony  65  parts  by  weight,  copper  16, 
lead  13,  prepared  in  the  same  way. 


CASTING   BRASS   NUTS   ON   SCREWS. 

POLISH  the  screw,  make  a  mould  on  it,  with  a 
or  runner  at  the  end ;  when  the  mould  is  hori- 
zontal, 1  inch  in  diameter,  5  inches  high,  scoop  out  the 
top  3  inches  diameter  beveled  down  to  1  inch;  sec 
ond,  make  the  gate  or  runner  oh  the  top  of  screw  J 
inch  diameter,  same  height  as  the  other.  Take  a 
pricker  and  prick  from  the  top  of  the  mould  to  the 
pattern  nut  about  a  dozen  holes,  after  which  draw 
diamonds  with  the  wire  from  these  holes  to  the  sides 
of  the  mould  on  the  top.  Now  part  the  mould,  draw 
the  nut  and  screw,  cut  the  gates,  making  the  one  at 
the  end  of  nut  same  as  the  down  one,  an  inch  in 
diameter;  take  the  screw,  smoke  it  over  a  gas-flame, 
turning  it  round,  pouring  a  little  oil  on  it.  Continue 
heating  till  the  oil  begins  to  boil ;  at  this  stage  take 
a  little  dry  parting-sand,  which  is  used  to  part  the 
mould ;  sprinkle  this  all  around  the  top  of  the  oil ; 
heat  now  as  before  to  a  dull  red  heat,  arid  proceed  as 


CASTING    BRASS    NUTS    ON    SCREWS.  165 

before.  Remelt  the  metal,  take  3  Ibs.  of  old  waste 
handles,  free  from  iron,  add  to  this  9  Ibs.  of  copper, 
melt  both,  and  when  ready  for  casting  add  J  Ib.  of 
zinc  or  spelter;  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  fire  10 
minutes ;  take  it  out,  add  J  Ib.  of  block  tin  and  \  Ib. 
of  lead;  stir  the  whole  well  up.  The  screw  is  now 
red  and  in  the  mould.  Rush  the  metal  quickly  in  at 
the  gate,  1  inch  diameter ;  be  sure  the  metal  is  hot, 
and  it  will  rise  at  the  other  gate  to  the  top  of  the 
mould.  Be  careful  at  this  stage.  To  take  the  nut 
off  do  not  heat  it;  dress  it  as  before;  hammer  it 
cold,  heat  it;  now  hold  the  screw  upright,  pour  on 
oil  at  the  top  of  the  nut,  allow  it  to  cool,  catch  nut 
in  vice,  apply  a  lever  to  the  square  at  end  of  screw, 
and  turn  it  round. 


A  NEW  PROCESS  OF  CASTING  IRON  AND  OTHER  METALS 

UPON  LACE,  EMBROIDERIES,  FERN  LEAVES  AND 

OTHER  COMBUSTIBLE  MATERIALS. 

MR.  A.  E.  OUTERBRIDGE,  JR.,  has  succeeded  in 
moulding  fine  lace  in  cast-iron,  the  impression  show- 
ing the  most  delicate  lines  of  the  pattern.  The  lace 
to  be  moulded  must  first  be  carbonized.  In  place  of 
lace,  other  fine  tissues,  embroidered  ornamentations 
upon  stuffs,  leaves,  grasses,  etc.,  may  also  be 


166  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOJNDER. 

moulded,  previous  carbonization  being,  however, 
always  required.  The  process,  as  described  by  Mr. 
Outerbridge  at  a  stated  meeting  of  the  Franklin  In- 
stitute, Philadelphia,  is  as  follows:  The  objects  are 
placed  in  a  cast-iron  box,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  powdered  charcoal  or  other 
form  of  carbon,  then  another  layer  of  carbon  dust 
is  sprinkled  over  them,  and  the  box  is  covered 
with  a  close-fitting  lid.  The  box  is  next  heated 
gradually  in  an  oven,  to  drive  off  moisture,  and 
the  temperature  slowly  raised  until  the  escape  of 
blue  smoke  from  under  the  lid  ceases.  The  heat 
is  then  increased  until  the  box  becomes  white-hot ;  it 
is  kept  in  this  glowing  condition  for  at  least  two 
hours.  It  is  then  removed  from  the  oven,  allowed  to 
cool,  and  the  contents  are  tested  in  a  gas  flame.  If 
ttay  have  been  thoroughly  carbonized,  they  will  not 
glow  when  removed  from  the  flame,  and  the  fibres 
may  even  be  heated  white  hot  before  consuming. 

Of  course  the  method  employed  to  carbonize  the 
materials  is  susceptible  of  variation,  but  the  scientific 
principles  involved  are  unchangeable,  viz.: 

1.  Partial  exclusion  of  air  and  substitution  there- 
for of  a  carbon  atmosphere. 

2.  Slow  heating  to  drive  off  moisture  and  volatile 
elements. 


A   NEW  PROCESS.  167 

3.  Intense  and  prolonged  heating  of  the  partly 
charred  objects  to  eliminate  remaining  foreign  ele- 
ments, and  to  change  the  carbon  from  the  combusti- 
ble form  of  ordinary  charcoal  to  a  highly  refractory 
condition. 

In  the  first  experiments  the  mould  was  made  in 
"green  sand"  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  the 
fabric  laid  smoothly  upon  one  face,  being  cut  slightly 
larger  than  the  mould,  in  order  that  it  might  project 
over  the  edge,  so  that  when  the  moulding  flask  was 
closed  the  fabric  was  held  in  its  proper  position. 
As  the  melted  metal  flowed  into  the  mould,  it  forced 
the  fabric  firmly  against  the  sand  wall,  and  when  the 
casting  was  removed  the  carbonized  fabric  was 
stripped  off  from  its  face  without  injury.  In  this 
way  several  castings  have  been  made  from  one  car- 
bonized material. 

The  castings  are  as  sharp  as  electrotypes,  whether 
made  of  soft  fluid  iron  or  hard  quick-setting  metal. 
This  peculiarity  is  owing  to  the  affinity  between 
melted  iron  or  steel ;  the  melted  metal  tends  to 
absorb  the  carbon  as  it  flows  over  it,  thus  causing  the 
fabric  to  hug  the  metal  closely.  It  is  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  effect  of  pouring  mercury  over  zinc. 
As  is  well  known,  when  mercury  is  poured  upon  a 
board,  it  runs  in  a  globular  form — it  does  not  "  wet 


168  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

the  board,  so  to  speak;  but  when  poured  upon  a 
plate  of  clean  zinc,  it  flows  like  water  and  wets  every 
portion  of  the  zinc  ;  or,  as  we  say,  it  amalgamates 
witto  the  zinc.  So  when  melted  iron  is  poured  into 
an  ordinary  sand  mould,  which  has  been  faced  with 
this  refractorily-carbonized  fabric,  it  wets  every 
portion  of  it,  tending  to  absorb  the  carbon,  and 
doubtless  would  do  so  if  it  remained  fluid  long 
enough,  but  as  the  metal  cools  almost  immediately, 
there  is  no  appreciable  destruction  of  the  fibres. 


CORES  IN  HEAVY  CASTINGS. 

WHEN  cores  run  through  heavy  bodies  of  iron,  the 
hot  liquid  raises  the  fusible  element  of  the  sand  to 
such  a  temperature  that  the  grains  fuse  together,  so 
that  when  the  casting-cleaner  tries  to  get  the  core  out, 
he  finds  it  almost  as  hard  as  the  iron.  A  good  thing 
to  prevent  this  fusing  of  the  sand  is  to  mix  some  sea- 
coal  or  blacking  in  it,  and  to  give  the  surface  of  the 
core  a  good  body  of  black  lead  or  plumbago  blacking. 
This  outside  coat  of  blacking  will  prevent  the  liquid 
iron  from  eating  into  the  surface  of  the  core-sand,  and 
the  sea-coal  or  blacking  mixed  in  the  sand  burns  away 
and  passes  off  in  the  form  of  gas,  leaving  a  porous 


CORES    IN   HEAVY    CASTINGS.  169 

body  between  the  grains  of  sand,  which  assists  in  pre- 
venting its  fusion. 

In  putting  rods  in  such  cores  as  are  subjected  to  a 
high  temperature,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  coat  them  with 
two  or  three  coats  of  flour  paste  and  dry  them  in  an 
oven  as  it  is  put  on ;  for  by  doing  this  the  dried  paste 
burns  off  from  the  rod  and  leaves  it  free  to  come  out 
of  the  casting. 


CORE  FOR  DIFFICULT  CASTINGS. 

THE  following  are  instructions  for  a  composition 
for  cores  that  may  be  required  for  difficult  jobs, 
where  it  would  be  very  expensive  to  make  a  core-box 
for  them :  Make  a  pattern  (of  any  material  that 
will  stand  moulding)  like  the  core  required.  Take  a 
mould  from  the  same  in  the  sand,  in  the  ordinary 
way,  place  strengthening  wires  from  point  to  point, 
centrally,  gate  and  close  your  flask.  Then  make  a 
composition  of  2  parts  brickdust  and  1  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  mix  with  water,  and  cast.  .Take  it  out  when 
set,  dry  it  and  place  it  in  the  mould  warm,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  cold  air  in  it. 


170  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


BRASS   MIRRORS.* 

AN  Etruscan  mirror,  placed  in  the  hands  of 
"  Gerharht  of  Berlin,"  was  found  to  consist,  in  100 
parts,  of  67.12  copper,  24.93  tin,  8.13  lead ;  ap- 
proximating closely  to  an  alloy  of  8  parts  copper, 
3  of  tin,  and  1  of  lead.  The  oxide  of  tin  obtained 
in  the  course  of  analysis  was  carefully  examined 
before  the  blow-pipe  for  antimony,  but  he  saw  no 
trace  of  that  metal. 

A  similar  mirror  has  been  analysed  by  "  Klap- 
roth."  He  found  62  per  cent,  copper,  32  tin,  and 
6  per  cent.  lead. 


Copper. — Copper  is  thick  and  pasty,  and  without 
some  alloy  will  not  run  into  the  cavities  and  sinu- 
osities of  the  mould. 

Metals. — A  quarter  of  a  grain  of  lead  will  render 
an  ounce  of  gold  perfectly  brittle,  although  neither 
gold  or  lead  are  brittle  metals. 

*  See  Job,  xxxvii.  18;  Exodus,  xxxviii.  8, 


1T1 

Surface  of  Metals. — The  surface  of  metals  should 
be  carefully  defended,  while  in  the  fluid  state,  from 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  by  a  stratum  of  wax, 
pitch,  or  resin,  if  the  fusing  point  be  low ;  or  by  a 
layer  of  salt,  powdered  glass,  borax,  charcoal,  &c., 
if  it  is  high. 

Blanched  Copper. — 8  ounces  of  copper,  and  J  an 
ounce  of  neutral  arsenical  salt,  fused  together  under 
a  flux  of  calcined  borax  and  pounded  glass,  to  which 
charcoal  powder  is  added,  makes  blanched  copper. 

British  Weapons  and  Tools  in  Bronze,  anciently 
called  Corinthian  and  Syracuse  Brass. — The  metal 
of  which  the  British  weapons  and  tools  were  made, 
has  been  chemically  analysed  in  modern  times,  and 
the  proportions  appear  to  be — 

In  a  spear  head,  1  part  of  tin  to  6  parts  of  copper. 
In  an  axe  head,  1         do.         10          do. 
In  a  knife,          1        do.          7  J        do. 


172  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


ON   BRASS. 

IN  Germany  brass  appears  to  have  been  made 
for  centuries  before  the  manufacture  was  introduced 
into  England.  This  is  stated  to  have  been  done  by 
a  German,  who  worked  at  Esher,  in  Surrey,  in  the 
year  1649.  The  analysis  of  a  few  pieces  of  bronze, 
of  undoubted  antiquity,  namely,  a  helmet  with  an 
inscription  (found  at  Delphi,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum),  some  nails  from  the  treasury  of  Atreus, 
at  Mycenae,  an  ancient  Corinthian  coin,  and  a  por- 
tion of  a  breast-plate,  or  cuirass,  of  exquisite  work 
manship  (also  in  the  British  Museum),  affords  about 
87  to  88  parts  copper  to  about  12  to  13  tin,  pei 
cent. 

The  experiments  of  Klaproth  and  others  give 
nearly  the  same  results  as  to  ingredients ;  the  quan- 
tities sometimes  slightly  differ.  Lead  is  contained 
in  some  specimens,  as  has  been  shown.  Zinc,  and 
the  nature  of  it,  as  heretofore  observed,  was  not 
known  to  the  ancients. 

In  an  antique  sword,  found  many  years  ago,  in 


CASTING    IN    PLASTER.  173 

France,  the  proportions  in  100  parts  were,  87.47 
copper,  12.53  tin,  with  a  small  portion  of  lead,  not 
worth  noticing. 


METHOD  OF  CASTING  IN  PLASTER — MEDALLIONS,  ETC. 

OBTAIN  some  fine  plaster,  of  good  colour,  and 
pass  it  through  a  muslin  sieve,  to  remove  any  coarser 
particles  which  may  be  present.  By  mixing  gum 
arabic  with  the  water  intended  to  be  used  in  the 
plaster,  not  only  will  the  plaster  be  rendered  very 
hard  when  it  sets,  but  a  beautiful  gloss  will  be  given 
to  the  surface.  Care  must  be  taken  to  drop  the 
plaster  powder  gradually  into  the  water,  and  to  per- 
mit the  bubbles  to  rise  before  the  mixture  is  stirred ; 
otherwise  it  will  become  lumpy.  The  plaster  should 
be  of  the  consistence  of  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  and,  of 
course,  used  immediately.  If  the  medal  intended 
to  be  copied  is  a  valuable  one,  with  a  smooth  surface, 
it  will  be  advisable  not  to  oil  it,  as,  in  cleaning  the 
oil  off,  the  polish  may  be  injured;  but  if  the 
surface  be  rough  there  will  be  no  remedy,  and  the 
oil  must  afterwards  be  removed,  by  dabbing  the  sur- 
face of  the  medal  gently  with  a  soft  cloth. 


174  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

A  rim  of  thin  lead,  brass,  copper,  or  even  oiled 
paper,  is  then  tied  round  the  medal,  and  some  liquid 
plaster,  in  the  first  place,  stippled  over  its  surface 
with  a  soft  brush,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  air 
bubbles,  as  well  as  to  insure  its  insertion  into  the 
most  minute  crevices;  after  which  the  plaster  is 
poured  upon  the  surface  to  the  thickness  of  half  aa 
inch,  or  an  inch  if  a  large  medal. 

To  separate  the  mould  from  the  medal,  all  we 
have  to  do  is  to  immerse  it  in  water,  when  it  is 
readily  removed ;  otherwise  the  mould  is  sure  to  be 
broken. 

To  obtain  a  plaster  cast  from  this  mould,  we  must 
oil  it  with  warm  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  allow  it  seve- 
ral days  to  dry.  Whenever  the  mould  is  used  it 
must  be  well  oiled ;  otherwise  the  surface  of  the 
casting  will  be  destroyed.  The  best  olive  oil  must 
be  used,  or  ths  colour  of  the  plaster  will  be  injured. 


TRANSFERRING   AND    VARNISHING.  175 


TO   TRANSFER   ENGRAVINGS   TO   PLASTER  CASTS, 

COVER  the  plate  with  ink,  aiid  polish  its  surface 
in  the  usual  way ;  then  put  your  rim  round  it,  as 
before  stated,  and  pour  in  your  plaster,  mixed  as 
before.  Jerk  the  plate  repeatedly,  to  allow  che 
air  bubbles  to  fly  upwards,  and  let  it  stand  one  hour ; 
then  take  the  cast  off  the  plate,  and  a  very  perfect 
impression  will  be  the  result. 


TO   VARNISH    PLASTER   CASTS. 

PLASTER  CASTS  are  varnished  by  a  mixture  of  soap 
and  white  wax  in  boiling  water.  A  quarter  of  an 
ounce  of  soap  is  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and 
an  equal  quantity  of  wax  afterwards  incorporated 
The  cast  is  dipped  in  this  liquid,  and,  after  drying 
a  week,  is  polished,  by  rubbing  with  soft  linen,  pro- 
ducing a  polish  like  marble.  If  to  be  exposed  to 
the  weather,  saturate  them  with  linseed  oil  mixed 


i7b'  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

with  wax,  or  rosin  may  be  combined.  In  casting 
the  plaster,  always  use  spring  water  and  gum 
arabic. 


TO    CAST   CONCAVE   OR   CONVEX   MOULDS    OF   MEDALS, 
ON    "  TIN-FOIL,"    WITH    PLASTER. 

TAKE  a  medal,  &c.,  and  cover  it  with  very  thin 
"  tin-foil,"  which  press  as  close  to  the  medal  as  you 
can ;  go  over  every  part  with  a  brush,  laying  on 
tolerably  hard,  in  order  to  press  the  tin-foil  into 
every  cavity  of  the  medal.  After  which,  you  may 
pour  plaster  upon  it,  and,  when  it  is  hard,  take  the 
medal  out,  leaving  the  tin-foil  in  the  plaster ;  then, 
with  a  little  fine  olive  oil,  anoint  the  tin-foil,  and 
the  plaster  where  it  must  part,  and  pour  more  plas- 
ter upon  the  tin-foil,  which  also  let  harden.  You 
may  then  separate  them,  and  take  out  the  tin-foil, 
and  you  will  have  both  a  concave  and  a  convex 
mould. 


CASTING    COMPLEX    OBJECTS.  177 


TO  CAST  VEGETABLES,  INSECTS,  SMALL  BIRDS,  FROGS, 
FISH,  ETC.,  IN  PLASTER  MOULDS. 

PROVIDE  a  trough  of  boards,  nailed  together  so 
as  not  to  let  the  water  run  through  the  joints.  Sus- 
pend in  the  trough,  by  thread  or  Holland  twine, 
in  several  places,  the  vegetable,  plant,  insect,  &c., 
which  you  would  cast,  which  being  performed,  mix 
four  parts  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  two  parts  of  fine 
brick-dust,  with  common  water,  to  the  consistence 
of  cream,  and  with  this  cover  the  thing  intended  to 
be  cast,  observing  not  to  distort  it,  by  any  means, 
from  its  natural  position.  When  you  have  filled 
your  trough,  let  it  harden  by  placing  it  near  the  fire 
by  degrees  till  you  can  make  it  red  hot.  Then  let 
it  cool,  and,  with  a  pair  of  bellows,  blow  and  shake 
as  much  of  the  ashes  out  of  the  mould  as  you  can. 
You  must  now  put  a  small  quantity  of  quicksilver 
into  the  mould,  and  shake  it,  in  order  to  loosen 
every  part  of  the  ashes  therein ;  also  to  make  a 
passage  through  where  the  strings  were  tied,  in 
order  to  let  the  air  out  when  you  pour  in  your 
metal. 


178  BRASS    AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 


TO   PREPARE  A   kETAL  FOR   THE   ABOVE   WORK. 

TAKE  of  grain  tin  6  ounces,  bismuth  2  ounces 
and  lead  3  ounces.  Melt  them  together  in  an  iron 
Udle,  and  you  may  cast  in  the  above  mould  to  your 
satisfaction. 

You  may  combine  the  above  ingredients  in  such 
proportions  as  to  compose  a  metal  that  will  melt  in 
boiling  water.  Thus, 

Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Fusible  Metal  is  composed  of 
8  parts  bismuth,  5  parts  lead,  and  3  parts  tin.  This 
alloy  melts  at  212°. 

Rose's  Alloy  is  still  more  fusible :  it  is  2  parts 
bismuth,  1  lead,  and  1  tin,  and  melts  at  201°. 

The  late  Dr.  Dalton's  Fusible  Alloy.— 3  parts 
tin,  5  parts  lead,  and  10J  parts  bismuth ;  melts  at 
197°.  The  addition  of  a  little  mercury  makes  it 
more  fusible,  and  fits  it  to  be  used  as  a  coating  to 
the  insides  of  glass  globes 


CASTING   IN   WAX.  179 

An  alloy  of  equal  parts  of  tin  anl  bismuth  melts 
at  280°.  A  less  proportion  of  bismuth  adds  to  the 
hardness  of  tin,  and  hence  its  use  in  the  formation 
of  pewter,  or  pewter  solder. 


TO   CAST  IN  WAX. 

THE  mould  is  first  made  in  plaster,  but  before 
being  used  it  is  placed  in  warm  water,  of  which  it  is 
allowed  to  absorb  as  much  as  it  will  take — oil  not 
being  used  in  this  process.  The  surface  must  then 
be  allowed  to  dry,  or  the  wax  would  not  adhere 
closely.  Pure  wax  is  too  greasy  for  the  purpose, 
and  bladder  flake-white  is  therefore  mixed  with  it : 
the  quantity  cannot  be  stated ;  but  the  addition  of 
too  much  gives  wax  the  appearance  of  plaster,  by 
taking  away  its  richness.  The  oftener  the  wax  is 
remelted,  ^the  more  its  colour  is  injured. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  gray  marble  colour,  a  marble 
powder,  procurable  at  any  statuary,  is  mixed  with 
the  wax,  which  not  only  gives  a  beautiful  appearance 
to  it,  but  renders  it  more  durable. 

The  wax  is  poured  into  the  mould  and  allowed  to 


180  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

flow  over  its  surface,  and  by  moistening  the  plaster 
mould  in  water  when  the  wax  has  become  hard,  the 
cast  is  easily  removed.  Wax  models  may  be  fastened 
by  means  of  linseed  oil  and  flake-white,  and  also  by 
a  combination  of  bees'  wax  and  resin. 


TO  CAST  IN   SULPHUR. 

THIS  is  a  very  permanent  mode,  but  as  a  mould 
it  can  only  be  used  for  plaster ;  for  hot  wax  or  sul 
phur  would  injure  its  surface.  When  sulphur  is 
heated  to  the  temperature  suitable  for  forming  casts, 
it  becomes  nearly  black,  and  has,  therefore,  to  be 
coloured  in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  vermil- 
lion  to  three  ounces  of  sulphur.  The  surface  of  the 
mould,  however,  need  only  be  coated  with  this 
expensive  mixture,  and  common  sulphur  in  any 
quantity. 

You  must  use  wood  to  stir  the  sulphur,  as  iron 
will  take  away  its  colour.  The  sulphur  will  take 
hre  in  melting,  unless  it  is  properly  stirred,  and  at 
first  will  become  thick  and  viscid,  but  by  continuing 
the  application  of  heat,  it  will  again  assume  a  per- 
fectly liquid  form. 


CASTING   Itf   GLUE.  181 


TO   CAST   IN  GLUE. 

IP  a  medal  is  so  much  sunk  and  engraved  that 
you  cannot  get  a  plaster  cast  off,  a  mould  may  be 
obtained  by  pouring  glue  upon  it.  In  this  manner 
a  bunch  of  grapes  can  be  taken  in  the  natural  state, 
and  by  cutting  the  glue  down  the  centre,  the  grapes 
can  be  extracted,  and  the  mould  used  to  produce  a 
representation  of  the  original  in  plaster.  Isinglass 
may  be  similarly  used,  but  it  is  first  mixed  with 
flake-white,  in  the  state  of  powder.  When  the 
plaster  is  hard,  place  the  whole  in  boiling  water, 
when  the  glue  will  melt  away,  leaving  a  perfect  cast 
of  plaster  grapes. 


TO   MAKE  A  FINE  GLUE,  WHEREWITH  YOU   MAT  CAST 
CURIOUS   MEDALS. 

STEEP  isinglass  in  brandy,  and  when  it  is  dis- 
solved boil  it  together  with  water,  and  pour  it  o?er 
any  medal,  and  when  dry  it  will  appear  perfect.  It 


182  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

must  be  of  a  tolerably  thick  consistence,  much  Jike 
common  glue. 


TO   CAST  IN   BREAD   PASTE. 

TAKE  the  inside  of  fresh  bread,  and  work  it  up 
well  with  vermillion — the  longer  the  better,  until  it 
becomes  viscid  and  tough.  It  is  then  to  be  worked 
well  into  the  mould.  After  having  obtained  the 
mould,  it  must  be  fastened  down  upon  a  piece  of 
wood,  by  wetting  it  so  as  to  prevent  it  from  warp- 
ing as  it  dries.  After  it  has  been  thoroughly  dried 
you  may  oil  it,  and  then  obtain  as  many  casts  as 
you  please  from  it,  in  plaster,  wax,  or  sulphur. 

By  means  of  bread-paste  a  traveller  may  always 
take  a  model  of  any  small  object  of  interest  he 
meets  with  on  his  journey;  and  thus  a  propei 
knowledge  of  its  mode  of  use  becomes  invaluable. 
Scrolls,  ruins  of  tombs  and  temples,  &c.,  have  often 
thus  been  copied  and  brought  home  at  a  trifling  cost 


CASTING   IN   ISINGLASS   AND   RICE    &LUE.       183 


TO   CAST  FIGURES   IN  IMITATION   OF  IVORY. 

MAKE  isinglass  and  strong  brandy  into  a  paste 
with  powder  of  egg-shells,  well  ground.  You  may 
make  it  whatever  colour  you  please,  but  cast  warm 
water  into  your  mould,  which  should  be  previously 
well  oiled  over.  Leave  the  figure  in  the  mould  to 
dry ;  and  on  taking  it  out  it  will  be  found  to  bear  a 
strong  resemblance  to  ivory. 


RICE  GLUE   STATUARY. 

Mix  rice  flour  intimately  with  cold  water,  and 
gently  simmer  it  over  the  fire,  when  it  readily  forms 
a  delicate  and  durable  cement,  not  only  answering 
the  purpose  of  common  paste,  but  admirably  adapted 
to  join  together  paper,  card,  &c.  When  made  of 
the  consistence  of  plastic  clay,  models,  busts,  basso- 
relievos,  &c.,  may  be  formed ;  and  the  articles  when 
dry  are  very  like  white  marble,  and  will  take  a  high 
polish,  being  very  durable.  In  this  manner  the 


184  1>RASS    AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  make  many  of  their  domestic 
idols.     Any  colouring  matter  may  be  used  at  plea 
sure. 


A  COMPOSITION   FOR   ORNAMENTS. 

TAKE  pounded  chalk,  what  quantity  you  please, 
add  thereto  as  much  thin  glue  as  will  make  it  into 
paste,  which  mix  well  together.  Then  put  it  into 
moulds,  being  a  little  oiled,  and  press  it  well  in ; 
after  which  take  it  out,  and  it  will  grow  as  hard  as 
stone. 

You  must  make  no  more  of  it  than  you  want  for 
present  use;  if  left  it  grows  nara,  and  cannot  be 
used  again, 


ON   ALLOYS   AND   AMALGAMS.  185 


ALLOYS,  AMALGAMS,  ETC. 

THE  formation  of  alloys  appears  to  depend  upon 
the  chemical  affinity  of  the  metals  for  each  other, 
and  in  some  instances  it  seems  to  be  wanting,  for  no 
combination  occurs.  Thus,  according  to  Gellert, 
bismuth  and  zinc  do  not  combine. 

The  change  of  properties  which  metals  undergo 
by  combining,  furnishes  strong  evidence  of  its  aris- 
ing from  chemical  affinity  and  action.  Thus,  with 
respect  to  colour,  copper,  a  reddish-coloured  metal, 
by  union  with  zinc,  which  is  a  white  one,  gives  the 
well  known  "yellow  alloy  brass." 

The  fusing  point  of  a  mixed  metal,  is  never  the 
mean  of  the  temperature  at  which  its  constituents 
melt,  and  it  is  generally  lower  than  that  of  the  most 
fusible  metal  of  the  alloy. 

Alloy  is  a  word  used  to  designate  either  a  natural 
or  artificial  compound  of  two  or  more  metals ;  ex- 
cept when  mercury  is  one  of  them ;  the  mixture  is 
then  termed  an  amalgam. 

The  natural  alloys  are  far  less  important  sub- 
stances than  those  which  are  artificially  procured. 
Thus  arsenic  occurs  combired  with  the  following 


186  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

metals,  namely,  antimony,  bismuth,  cobalt,  iron, 
nickel,  and  silver. 

There  is  also  found  a  native  alloy  of  antimony 
and  nickel,  and  of  antimony,  cobalt,  and  nickel : 
others  might  be  mentioned ;  but  there  is  no  instance 
of  a  native  alloy,  strictly  speaking,  being  applied  to 
any  useful  purpose.  Whereas,  the  artificial  alloys, 
as  has  been  fully  shown,  are  of  the  highest  import- 
ance, both  for  the  uses  of  common  life,  and  for  manu- 
facturing purposes.  By  uniting  different  metals, 
compounds  are  formed,  which  possess  a  combination 
of  qualities  not  occurring  in  any  one  metal. 

Platina  is  always  used  in  a  pure  state,  and  cop- 
per, iron,  lead,  and  zinc,  are  also  very  commonly  sc 
used.  But  gold,  silver,  tin,  antimony,  and  bismuth, 
are,  as  we  have  shown,  generally  alloyed ;  the  first 
three  on  account  of  their  softness,  and  the  two  latter 
because  they  are  extremely  brittle.  Gold  and  silver 
are  hardened  by  alloying  with  copper;  copper  is 
hardened  by  zinc,  tin,  &c.,  &c. 

All  alloys  formed  of  brittle  metals  are  brittle ; 
those  made  of  ductile  metals  are  in  some  cases  duc- 
tile and  in  others  brittle.  When  the  proportions 
are  nearly  equal,  there  are  as  many  alloys  which 
are  briltle  as  ductile — but  when  any  of  the  metals 
is  in  excess  they  are  most  commonly  ductile.  In 


DENSITY    OF   METALS. 


187 


combining  ductile  and  brittle  metals,  the  compounds 
are  brittle  if  thb  brittle  metal  exceed,  or  nearly 
equal  the  proportion  of  the  ductile  one ;  but  when 
the  ductile  metal  greatly  exceeds  the  brittle  one, 
the  alloys  are  usually  ductile. 

The  density  of  alloys  sometimes  exceeds,  and  in 
other  cases  is  less  than  that  which  would  result  from 
calculation.  The  following  alloys  afford  examples 
-jf  "increased  and  diminished  density:" — 


Increased  Density. 
Gold  and  Zinc. 
Gold  and  Tin. 
Gold  and  Bismuth. 
Gold  and  Antimony. 
Gold  and  Cobalt. 
Silver  and  Tin. 
Silver  and  Bismuth. 
Silver  and  Antimony. 
Silver  and  Zinc. 
Silver  and  Lead. 
Copper  and  Zinc. 
Copper  and  Tin. 
Copper  and  Palladium. 


Diminished  Density. 
Gold  and  Silver. 
Gold  and  Iron. 
Gold  and  Lead. 
Gold  and  Copper. 
Gold  and  Iridium. 
Gold  and  Nickel. 
Silver  and  Copper. 
Iron  and  Bismuth. 
Iron  and  Antimony. 
Iron  and  Lead. 
Tin  and  Lead. 
Tin  and  Palladium. 
Tin  and  Antimony, 


188  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

Increased  Density.  Diminished  Density. 

Copper  and  Bismuth.        Nickel  and  Arsenic. 
Copper  and  Antimony.      Zinc  and  Antimony. 
Lead  and  Bismuth. 
Lead  and  Antimony. 
Platina  and  Molybdenum. 
Palladium  and  Bismuth. 

Not  only  are  the  properties  of  metals  altered  by 
combination,  but  different  proportions  of  the  same 
metals  produce  very  different  alloys.  Thus,  by 
combining  90  parts  of  copper  with  10  parts  of  tin,  an 
alloy  is  obtained  of  greater  density  than  the  mean 
of  the  metals ;  and  it  is  also  harder  and  more  fusible 
than  the  copper ;  it  is  slightly  malleable  when  slowly 
cooled ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  when  heated  to  red- 
ness and  plunged  into  cold  water,  it  is  very  malle- 
able. This  compound  is  known  by  the  name  of 
bronze. 

Again,  as  has  been  previously  laid  down,  if  80 
parts  of  copper  be  combined  with  20  parts  of  tin, 
the  compound  is  the  extremely  sonorous  one,  called 
bell  metal. 

An  alloy  consisting  of  two-thirds  copper,  and 
one-third  tin,  is  susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish, 
and  is  used  as  speculum  metal. 


COMBINATION   AND   CHEMICAL   ACTION.         189 

It  is  curious  to  observe  in  these  alloys,  that  in 
bronze,  the  density  and  hardness  of  the  denser  and 
harder  metal  are  increased,  by  combining  with  a 
lighter  and  softer  one ;  while,  as  might  be  expected, 
the  fusibility  of  the  more  refractory  metal  is  in- 
creased by  uniting  with  a  more  fusible  metal.  ID 
bell  metal,  the  copper  becomes  more  sonorous  by 
combination  with  a  metal  which  is  less  so.  These 
changes  are  clear  indications  of  chemical  action. 

It  has  been  already  observed  that  the  natural 
Alloys,  considered  as  such,  are  not  important  bodies. 
The  only  one,  if  indeed  that  may  be  reckoned  so; 
is  the  alloy  of  iron  and  nickel,  constituting  meteoric 
iron,  and  of  which  the  knives  of  the  Esquimaux 
appear  to  be  made. 

The  artificial  metallic  alloys  are  of  the  highest 
degree  of  utility.  Thus,  gold  is  too  soft  a  metal  to 
be  used  either  for  the  purposes  of  coin  or  ornament ; 
it  is  therefore  alloyed  with  copper.  Silver,  though 
harder  than  gold,  would  also  wear  too  quickly  unless 
mixed  with  copper ;  and  copper  is  improved  both  in 
hardness  and  colour  by  combination  with  zinc  and 
tin,  forming  brass  and  bronze. 


190 


BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER 


YELLOW  BRASS. 

ft>ltovnng  table  exhibits  the  composition  of 
several  varieties  of  this  species  of  brass.  No.  1  is 
a,  cast  biass,  of  uncertain  origin.  No.  2  is  the  brass 
of  Jemappes.  No.  3  is  the  sheet-brass  of  Stolberg, 
near  Aix-la-Chapelle.  No.  4  and  5,  the  brass  for 
gilding,  according  to  De  Arcet.  No.  6,  the  sheet- 
brass  of  Romilly.  No.  7,  English  brass-wire.  No. 
8,  Augsburg  brass-wire.  No.  9,  the  brass-wire  of 
Neustadt,  Eberswald,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Berlin. 


Metal. 

No.l. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

No.  6. 

No.  7. 

No.  8. 

No.0. 

Copper  . 
Zinc.  .  . 
Lead  .  . 
Tin  ... 

61.6 
35.8 
2.9 
0.2 

64.6 
33.7 
1.4 
0.2 

64.8 
32.8 
2.0 
0.4 

63.70 
35.55 
0.25 
0.50 

64.45 
32.44 
2.86 
0.25 

70.1 
29.9 

70.29 
29.26 
0.28 
0.17 

71.89 
27.63 

0.85 

70.16 
27.45 
0.20 
0.79 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 
nearly; 

COPPER   MEDALS    AND   MEDALLIONS.  191 


TO   MAKE   COPPER   MEDALS   AND   MEDALLIONS. 

LET  black  oxide  of  copper,  in  a  fine  powder,  be 
reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  by  exposing  it  to  a 
stream  of  hydrogen  in  a  gun -barrel  heated  barely 
to  redness.  The  metallic  powder  thus  obtained  is 
to  be  sifted  through  crape  upon  the  surface  of  the 
mould,  to  the  thickness  of  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch, 
and  is  then  to  be  strongly  pressed  upon  it,  first  by 
the  hand,  and  lastly  by  percussion  with  a  hammer. 
The  impression  thus  formed  is  beautiful,  but  it  ac- 
quires much  more  solidity  by  exposure  to  a  red  heat, 
out  of  contact  with  the  air.  Such  medals  are  said 
to  have  more  tenacity  than  melted  copper,  and  to 
be  sharply  defined.  This  plan  was  discovered  by 
M.  Boettger,  for  which  he  was  awarded  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 

An  improvement  on  the  above  plan,  whereby  you 
may  prepare  the  powder  of  copper  more  easily  and  of 
better  quality,  by  precipitating  a  boiling  hot  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  with  pieces  of  zinc ;  boiling 
the  metallic  powder,  thus  obtained,  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  for  a  little,  to  remove  all  traces  of  toe 


192  BRASS  AN:>  IRON  FOUNDER. 

zinc  or  oxide ;  washing  it  next  with  water,  and  dry- 
ing it  in  a  tubulated  retort  by  the  heat  of  a  water- 
bath,  while  a  stream  of  hydrogen  is  passed  over  it. 
This  cupreus  precipitate  possesses  so  energetic  an 
affinity  for  oxygen,  that  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  it 
passing  into  the  state  of  orange  oxide. 


AMALGAM. 

AMALGAM,  a  compound  of  two  or  more  metals,  of 
one  is  always  mercury  ;  and  this  circumstance 
distinguishes  an  amalgam  from  an  alloy.  Nature 
presents  us  with  only  one  amalgam,  which  is  silver, 
and  is  termed  by  mineralogists  "  native  amalgam." 
It  occurs  in  Hungary,  Sweden,  &c.,  and  is  met  with 
either  semi-fluid,  massive,  or  crystallized  in  rhombic 
dodecahedrons.  Klaproth  found  it  to  consist  of  64 
parts  of  mercury,  and  36  of  silver,  out  of  100  parts. 
Most  metals  may  be  amalgamated  with  mercury, 
and  the  combination  appears  to  depend  on  chemical 
affinity. 

When  the  cohesion  of  a  metal  is  slight,  as  in  the 
cases  of  potassium  and  sodium ;  or  when  its  affinity 
for  mercury  is  considerable,  as  in  the  instances  of 


AMALGAMATION   OF   MEDALS.  193 

gold  and  silver,  amalgamation  takes  place  readily, 
by  mere  contact.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
cohesion  of  a  metal  is  strong  or  its  affinity  for  mer- 
cury is  weak,  heat  or  intermediate  action,  or  both, 
are  requisite  to  effect  amalgamation. 

If  forty-four  parts  of  mercury  be  mixed  with  one 
part  of  potassium,  combination  occurs  with  the  evo- 
lution of  much  heat ;  and  when  the  resulting  amal- 
gam is  cold,  it  is  hard  and  has  the  appearance  of 
silver.  When  the  quantity  of  mercury  exceeds  one 
hundred  parts  to  one  of  potassium,  the  compound  is 
liquid,  and  an  amalgamation  containing  only  1.5 
per  cent,  of  potassium  is  susceptible  of  crystalliza 
tion.  The  density  of  an  amalgam  exceeds  that  of 
the  mean  of  the  metals  ;  this  and  the  tendency  of 
one  or  both  metals  to  oxidize,  are  additional  indica 
tions  of  chemical  combination. 

There  are  some  metals,  it  has  been  observed,  re- 
quiring heat  to  amalgamate  them.  Antimony  offers 
an  example  of  this :  to  effect  combination  it  must  be 
melted,  and  while  liquid  mixed  with  hot  mercury. 
Mere  heat,  however,  causes  scarcely  any  action  be- 
tween iron  and  mercury ;  they  may  be  amalgamated 
by  mixing  the  filings  of  the  metal  with  powdered 
alum,  and  rubbing  them  together  in  a  mortar  with 

a  little  water.     After  trituration,  the  alum  may  be 
13 


194  BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER. 

washed  out.  By  the  intervention  of  tin  or  zinc, 
iron  may  be  combined  with  mercury,  and  a  double 
amalgam  is  formed.  Platina  also  unites  with  mer- 
cury, by  the  intervention  of  the  amalgam  of  potas- 
sium, but  not  by  direct  action.  The  double  amalgam 
of  iron  and  zinc  does  not  rapidly  undergo  any 
change,  and  is  not  attracted  by  the  magnet.  All 
amalgams  are  decomposed  by  a  red  heat ;  the  mer- 
cury being  distilled,  and  the  more  fixed  metal  re- 
maining. The  process  of  amalgamation  and  decom- 
position is  employed  to  separate  gold  and  silver  from 
their  ores.  The  mercury  obtained  by  decomposing 
the  amalgams  is  distilled  and  repeatedly  used  for 
the  same  purpose,  with  comparatively  little  loss. 

The  amalgams  of  gold  and  silver  are  used  or  em- 
ployed in  the  process  of  gilding  and  plating.  We 
have  also  shown  the  amalgam  of  tin  is  largely  used 
m  what  is  called  silvering  mirrors,  and  that  various 
amalgams  of  tin  and  zinc  are  employed  for  exciting 
electricity  in  the  machine. 


ON  BISMUTH.  •     195 


BISMUTH. 

AT  a  high  temperature  this  metal  is  volatil- 
ized ;  may  be  distilled  in  close  vessels,  and  solidi- 
fies in  foliated  crystals.  If  it  be  merely  melted  in 
a  crucible,  and  cautiously  cooled,  it  crystallizes  in 
well-defined  cubes.  Bismuth,  as  met  with  in  com- 
merce, is  not  pure,  for  it  generally  contains  iron 
and  arsenic.  In  order  to  purify  it,  it  is  to  be  dis- 
solved in  nitric  acid ;  the  solution  is  to  be  decom- 
posed by  water,  and  the  precipitate,  after  being 
boiled  in  a  solution  of  soda,  is  to  be  mixed  with 
black  flux,  and  moderately  heated  in  a  crucible. 

Bismuth  combines  with  copper  to  form  a  pale- 
red  brittle  alloy.  It  forms  a  brittle  compound  with 
silver  ;  and  it  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for 
lead,  in  refining  silver.  It  is  said  to  form  a  more 
fluid  oxide,  which  penetrates  the  cupel  more  readily 
than  that  of  lead ;  and  may  also  be  used  in  smaller 
quantity. 

With  mercury  it  forms  a  very  fluid  alloy,  and 
makes  the  following  metals  brittle  by  combination  : 
tungsten,  palladium,  rhodium,  gold,  and  platina. 


196  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

It  is  principally  employed  in  making  fusible  alloys, 
and  as  an  ingredient  in  solders.  It  is  often  called 
in  the  arts  "  tin  glass." 


ON  FRICTION. 

FRICTION  is  independent  of  the  velocity ;  at  least 
when  the  velocity  is  neither  very  great  nor  very 
small.  With  hard  substances,  such  as  wood,  metal, 
and  stone,  the  amount  of  friction  is  simply  as  the 
pressure,  without  regard  to  surface,  time,  or  velocity. 
Friction  is  greatest  with  soft,  and  least  with  hard 
substances.  The  diminution  of  friction  by  ungue7it» 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  unguents,  without  re 
ference  to  the  substances  moving  over  them. 

The  following  table  shows  the  comparative  amount 
of  friction  of  different  metals,  under  an  average 
pressure  of  54.25  pounds  to  69.55  pounds. 


TABLE   OF   FRICTION. 


197 


Names  of  Metals,  Tried. 

Average 
Weight. 

Proportions. 

Weight  per 
Square  Inch. 

Brass  on  Wrought  Iron  .  . 
Steel  upon  Steel  

Ibs. 
69.55 
69.55 

7.312 

6.860 

Ibs.      oz. 
11  12.4 
11  12.5 

Brass  upon  Cast  Iron  .  .  . 
Brass  upon  Steel  

54.25 

69.55 

6.745 
6.592 

8    0.5 
11  12.5 

Hard  Brass  upon  Cast  Iron 
Wro't  Iron  upon  Wro't  Iron 
Cast  Iron  upon  Cast  Iron  . 
Do.  do.  Steel  .  .  . 
Do.  do.  Wro't  Iron 
Brass  upon  Brass  

54.25 
69.55 
54.25 
69.55 
69.55 
69.55 

6.581 
6.561 
6.475 
6.393 
6.023 
5.764 

6  15.9 
11  12.5 
8    0.5 
11  12.5 
11  12.5 
11  12.5 

Tin  upon  Tin  . 

69.55 

3.305 

11  12.5 

From  hence  it  would  appear  that  hard  metah 
have  less  friction  than  soft  ones  ;  and  that  the  fric- 
tion of  hard  against  hard  may  be  generally  estimated 
at  about  one-sixth  of  the  pressure. 

Relative  to  unguents,  Sir  John  Rennie's  experi- 
ments show  that  for  gun  metal  or  cast  iron,  with  oil 
intervening,  and  a  weight  of  1120  pounds,  the  fric- 
tion amounted  to  -J.63  of  the  pressure ;  but  on 
diminishing  the  insistent  weights  the  friction  was 
diminished  to  .33. 


198  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


BKLLti. 


THE  large  bells  now  used  in  churches,  are  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola, 
in  Campania,  about  the  year  400 :  whence  the 
"Nola"  and  "Campania"  of  the  lower  Latinity. 
They  were  probably  introduced  into  England  very 
soon  after  their  invention.  They  are  first  mentioned 
by  Bede,  about  the  close  of  the  seventh  century. 
Ingulphus  records  that  Turketul,  Abbot  of  Croy- 
land,  who  died  about  the  year  890,  gave  a  bell  of  a 
very  large  size  to  that  abbey,  which  he  named  Gruth- 
lac.  His  successor,  Egelric,  cast  a  ring  of  six 
others,  to  which  he  gave  the  names  of  Bartholomew, 
Bettelin,  Turketul,  Tat  wine,  Pega,  and  Bega.  Baro- 
nius  informs  us  that  Pope  John  XIII. ,  A.  D.  968, 
consecrated  a  very  large  new  cast  bell,  in  the  Late- 
ran  Church,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  John.  The 
ritual  for  the  baptizing  of  bells  may  be  found  in  the 
Roman  Pontificale. 

The  city  of  Nankin,  in  China,  was  anciently  fa- 
mous for  the  largeness  of  its  bells,  as  we  learn  from 
Father  le  Compte ;  but  they  were  afterwards  far 
exceeded  in  size  by  those  of  the  churches  of  Moscow 


ON   FLUXES.  199 

A  bell  in  the  tower  of  St.  Ivan's  Church,  in  Mos- 
cow, weighed  127,836  English  pounds,  or  57  tons 
1  cwt.  1  qr.  16  pounds.  A  bell  given  by  the  Czar 
Boris  Godunof  to  the  Cathedral  of  Moscow,  weighed 
288,000  pounds,  or  128  tons  11  cwt.  1  qr.  20  Ibs. 
And  another,  given  by  the  Empress  Anne,  probably 
the  largest  in  the  known  world,  weighed  432,000 
pounds,  or  192  tons  17  cwt.  0  qrs.  26  pounds. 
According  to  Coxe  (Travels  in  Russia,  vol.  1,  page 
322),  the  height  of  this  last  bell  was  19  feet,  the 
nircumference  at  the  bottom  63  feet  11  inches,  and 
its  greatest  thickness  23  inches.  The  great  bell  of 
St.  Paul's,  London,  weighs  12,000  pounds,  and  is 
9  feet  in  diameter. 

The  largest  bell  in  England,  is  "  Great  Tom,"of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  which  is  17,000  pounda 
weight. 


ON  FLUXES. 


BLACK  FLUX  is  made  by  mixing  one  part  of 
powdered  nitre  with  two  parts  of  powdered  argol, 
which  is  the  commercial  name  for  impure  cream  of 
tartar,  or  bitartrate  of  potash. 


200  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

This  mixture  is  to  be  gradually  thrown  into  a  red- 
hot  earthen  crucible,  so  as  to  deflagrate  it,  taking 
care  not  to  make  the  heat  so  high  as  to  fuse  the 
mixture. 

In  this  case,  the  nitric  acid  of  the  nitre  is  de« 
composed,  its  oxygen  acts  upon  the  carbon  of  the 
tartaric  acid,  carbonic  acid  is  formed,  and  this  unit- 
ing with  the  potash,  both  of  the  nitre  and  bitartrate, 
is  converted  into  carbonate  of  potash.  The  whole 
of  the  carbon  of  the  tartaric  acid  is  not,  however, 
QO  acted  upon ;  and  the  excess  remains  mixed  with 
the  carbonate  of  potash,  in  the  state  of  finely  divided 
charcoal. 

This  flux  should  be  immediately  reduced  to 
powder,  and  kept  in  a  well  stopped  bottle ;  other- 
wise it  will  become  damp  by  the  absorption  of  moist 
ure,  to  which  the  carbonate  of  potash  is  subject. 
This  flux  is  doubly  useful ;  the  carbonate  of  potash 
combines  with  the  earthy  parts  of  the  ore,  such  as 
silica  and  alumina,  while  the  charcoal  unites  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  metallic  oxides,  and,  carbonic 
acid  being  formed  and  expelled,  the  metal  is  reduced 
and  melts.  This  flux  is  especially  useful  in  the  pro- 
cess of  detecting  arsenious  acid,  and  reducing  it  to 
the  metallic  state. 

Argol,  already  described,  is  an  impure  bitartrate 


FUSING   AND   MELTING   POINTS.  201 

of  potash,  powdered  and  mixed  with  the  pulverized 
substance  to  be  reduced,  and  is  sometime's  advantage- 
ously used  as  a  flux.  Owing  to  the  intimate  mix- 
ture of  the  charcoal  and  potash  in  this  flux,  a  good 
deal  of  potassium  is  evolved ;  and  upon  the  reduc- 
ing property  of  this  metal,  the  reduction  of  the 
oxides  of  other  metals  frequently  depends  to  a  con 
siderable  extent. 

Charcoal  alone  is,  in  the  case  of  pure  oxides, 
sometimes  employed  as  a  flux :  thus,  a  crucible 
lined  with  charcoal  is  useful  for  the  reduction  of 
jxide  of  iron ;  or  the  oxide  may  be  mixed  with  char- 
coal. 

Sal-enixum,  or  the  refuse  from  aquafortis,  is  aL 
excellent  flux  for  copper,  &c. 


FUSING  AND  MELTING  POINTS,  ASCERTAINED  BY  MEANS 
OF  PROFESSOR  DANIEL'S  REGISTERED  PYROMETER. 

Mercury,      ....  — 39°  Fahrenheit. 
Tin,    . .  !.#•  .-.x;  ,>-,„.  442°  Crichton. 
Bismuth,       .:i^r .; ;  *  .  49T*  rJ    do. 
Lead,       .     .     .     .     .     612°  ~;  do. 
Zinc, 773°  Daniel. 


202  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

Antimony     ....     809°  Daniel. 

Silver,     .....  1873°      do. 

Copper, 1996°      do. 

Gold, 2016°      do. 

Cast  iron,     .     .     •     .  2787°      do. 

Bismuth  is  mentioned  by  Agricola,  about  the  year 
1 529,  A.  D.  It  is  of  a  reddish- white  colour ;  its 
lustre  is  considerable,  and  its  structure  lamellated. 
It  is  so  brittle  as  to  be  easily  reducible  to  powder. 
When  cold,  its  density  is  9.83.  It  melts  at  462°. 
according  to  Crighton,  jr. ;  Irving,  476° ;  Daniel, 
497°.  Thus  even  doctors  disagree.  Probably, 
however,  the  specimens  experimented  upon  might 
have  slightly  varied  as  to  quality — the  reader  ie 
furnished  with  all  the  facts. 


FLUIDITY. 


ACCORDING  to  Dr.  Irving,  the  undermentioned 
bodies  contain  the  annexed  quantities  of  heat  when 
rendered  fluid: — 


ANTI-FRICTION    METALS.  £03 

Lead,         ;.     .     .     . '  162°  Fahrenheit. 

Zinc, 493°         do. 

Tin, 500°        do. 

Bismuth,    ....     550°         do. 


ANTI-FRICTION   METALS. 

MANY  use  9  and  10  parts  tin  to  1  part  copper. 

A  superior  composition  to  either  of  the  above  is, 
1  part  copper,  1  part  regulus  of  antimony,  to  10 
parts  of  tin.  Melt  the  copper  first,  then  add  the 
antimony,  with  a  small  portion  of  tin  ;  cover  up  the 
•whole  with  charcoal  for  a  short  time  prior  to  cast- 
ing ;  add  the  remainder  of  the  tin.  These  composi- 
tions are  solely  used  for  lining  brass  bearings. 

The  following  is  an  excellent  anti-friction  metal, 
not  used  for  linings,  but  used  in  castings  instead  of 
brass :  namely,  85  parts  zinc,  10  parts  tin,  to  which 
is  added  5  parts  of  antimony. 


204 


BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  DECIMAL  PROPORTIONS  INTO  DIVISIONS 
OF  THE  POUND  AVOIRDUPOIS. 


Decimal. 

os.    dr. 

Decimal. 

01.    dr. 

Decimal. 

os.    dr. 

Decimal. 

os.    dr. 

.39 

1 

12.89 

2      1 

26.39 

4      1 

37.85 

6      1 

.78 

2 

13.28 

2    2 

35.78 

4      2 

38.28 

6    2 

1.17 

3 

13.67 

2    3 

26.17 

4    3 

38.67 

6    3 

1.56 

4 

14.06 

2    4 

26.56 

4    4 

39.06 

6    4 

1.95 

5 

14.45 

2    5 

26.95 

4    5 

39.45 

6    5 

2.34 

6 

14.84 

2     6 

27.34 

4     6 

39.84 

6    6 

2.73 

7 

15.23 

2     7 

27.73 

4     7 

40.23 

6     7 

3.13 

8 

16.62 

2    8 

28.13 

4    8 

40.62 

6    8 

3.52 

9 

16.01 

2    9 

28.52 

4    9 

41.02 

6     9 

3.91 

10 

16.41 

2  10 

28.91 

4  10 

41.41 

6  10 

4.30 

11 

16.80 

2  11 

29.30 

4  11 

41.79 

6  11 

4.69 

12 

17.19 

2  12 

29.69 

4  12 

42.19 

6  12 

5.08 

13 

17.68 

2  13 

30.08 

4  13 

42.54 

6  13 

5.47 

14 

17.97 

2  14 

30.47 

4  14 

42.97 

6  14 

5.86 

15 

18.36 

2  15 

30.86 

4  15 

43.36 

6  15 

6.25 

1     0 

18.75 

3    0 

31.25 

5    0 

43.75 

7     0 

6.64 

1     1 

19.14 

3     1 

31.64 

5     1 

44.14 

7     1 

7.03 

1     2 

19.53 

8     2 

32.03 

6    2 

44.53 

7     2 

7.42 

1     3 

19.92 

3     3 

32.42 

5    3 

44.92 

7     3 

7.81 

1     4 

20.31 

3     4 

32.81 

5     4 

45.31 

7     4 

8.20 

1     5 

20.70 

3     5 

33.20 

5    6 

45.70 

7     5 

8.59 

1     6 

21.09 

3     6 

33.59 

6    6 

46.09 

7     6 

8.98 

7 

21.48 

3     7 

33.98 

5     7 

46.48 

7     7 

9.38 

8 

21.88 

3     8 

34.37 

5    8 

46.87 

7    8 

9.77 

9 

22.27 

3     9 

34.69 

5    9 

47.27 

7     9 

10.16 

10 

22.66 

3  10 

35.16 

5  10 

47.66 

7  10 

10.55 

11 

23.05 

3  11 

35.55 

5  11 

48.05 

7  11 

10.94 

12 

23.44 

3  12 

35.94 

5  12 

48.44 

7  12 

11.33 

13 

23.83 

3  13 

36.33 

5  13 

48.83 

7  13 

11.72 

1  14 

24.22 

3  14 

36.71 

5  14 

49.22 

7  14    | 

12.10 

1  15 

24.61 

3  15 

37.11 

5  15 

49.61 

7  15    ' 

12.50 

2     0 

25.00 

4     0 

37.50 

6     0 

50.00 

8  o  ; 

L 

i 

Application  of  the  Table. 

The  Chinese  Packfong,  similar  to  our  German  silver,  accord 
ing  to  Dr.  Fyfe's  analysis,  page  108,  is  said  to  consist  of — 
40.4  parts  of  Copper  1  J*6  oz.  7  drams,  full. 

q?1  N^V  J  equivalent  to  J  *  -J  ful\ 

31.6       —       Nickel  f  |  5  —  1     —       nearly. 

2.6      —       Iron     J  7     —       nearly 


100.0  Parta 


I6oz.O    —    Avd. 


STATUE   COMPOSITION.  205 


KELLER'S  STATUE  COMPOSITION. 

THE  brothers  Keller,  who  were  very  celebrated 
statue  founders,  used  an  alloy,  10,000  parts  of  which 
contained  9140  parts  of  copper,  714  parts  tin,  118 
parts  zinc,  and  28  parts  lead.  This  is  the  composi 
tion  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  which  was  cast 
at  a  single  jet,  by  Balthazar  Keller,  in  1669.  It  is 
twenty-one  feet  high,  and  weighs  58,268  French 
rounds.  These  statues  are  usually  miscalled  bronze. 

The  best  brass  consists  of  four  parts  of  copper  to 
one  part  of  zinc. 

Bronze  was  well  known  to  the  Komans  under  the 
name  of  "  orichalcum,"  who  took  advantage  of  its 
resemblance  to  gold,  in  robbing  the  temple*-  and 
other  public  places  of  that  precious  metal.  Thus 
Julius  Csesar  robbed  the  Capitol  of  8000  pounds 
weight  of  gold ;  and  Vitellius  despoiled  the  oemples 
uf  their  gifts  and  ornaments,  and  replaced  thorn 
with  this  inferior  metal 


206 


BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 


THE   CHINESE   PACKFONG,* 

ACCORDING  to  Dr.  Fyfe's  analysis,  is  said  to  ecu 
sist  of 


40.4  parts  of  copper " 
25.4       "        zinc 
31.6       "        nickel 
2.6      ."       iron 


100.0  parts. 


equiva- 
lent to 


f6oz.  7  dr.  full. 

4  oz.  1  dr.  full. 

5  oz.  1  dr.  nearly 

7  dr.  nearly. 


16  oz.  0  dr. 


COPPER. 


COPPER,  when  mixed  with  as  much  zinc  as  possi- 
ble, that  is  89  pounds  copper  to  100  pounds  zinc, 
becomes  white.  The  best  "  Goslar  zinc"  is  from  the 
Hartz,  Germany. 


*  Similar  to  our  German  silver. 


COMPOSITIONS.  207 


SILVER   STEEL. 

1  part  silver,  500  parts  steel,  according  to  Fara- 
day and  Stodan.  This  alloy  would  be  superior  to 
the  best  steel.  Steel  also  combines  with  otner 
metals,  such  as  nickel,  platinum,  manganese,  &c. 


COPPER   AND   ANTIMONY. 


75  parts  copper,  and  25  parts  antimony.  This 
alloy  is  brittle,  lamellated,  of  a  violet  colour,  sus- 
ceptible of  a  fine  polish,  and  is  more  fusible  than 
copper. 


ANTIMONY  AND   TIN,    COPPER   AND  BISMUTH. 

100  parts  of  tin,  8  parts  of  antimony,  4  parts  ot 
copper,  and  1  part  of  bismuth,  constitute  the  com 
pound  commonly  called  pewter. 


208  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


BISMUTH   AND   LEAD. 

1  part  of  bismuth,  and  1  part  of  lead,  a  very  te- 
nacious alloy,  melting  at  165°  Centigrade,  equiva- 
lent to  370°  Fahrenheit. 

2  parts  of  lead  to  1  part  of  bismuth,  gives  ao 
alloy  which  dilates  powerfully  at  the  time  of  cooling. 
(This  property  makes  it  extremely  suitable  to  all 
castings  in  which  the  greatest  sharpness  and  fh,  ish 
are  desirable. — H.  MEIGS.) 


FULL   MEASURE    OF   CAPACITY   OF   TIN   AND    LEAD 

82  parts  tin,  and  18  parts  lead. 


BRILLIANTS   OF   FAHLUN, 

THUS  called,  are  made  from  29  parts  of  tin,  ano 
19  parts  of  lead     A  very  fusible  and  brilliant  alloy, 


COMPOSITIONS   OF   METALS.  209 


QUEEN'S  METAL, 

IMITATING  silver,  has  great  metallic  lustre:  9 
parts  tin,  1  part  lead,  1  part  antimony,  and  1  part 
bismuth. 


TIN  AND   ZINC. 


1  part  tin,  and  1  part  zinc,  is  almost  as  tenacious 
as  brass,  and  melts  at  460°  to  500°  Centigrade, 
900°  Fahrenheit. 


TIN   AND   IRON. 


THESE  two  metals  may  be  alloyed  in  all  propor- 
tions. 35  parts  of  tin  to  65  parts  of  iron,  form  an 
alloy  of  a  clear  crystalline  gray,  and  so  brittle  thai 
\t  may  be  rcdiMjed  to  an  impalpable  powder. 


14 


210  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


TO    SILVER   COPPER. 

PRECIPITATE  silver  from  its  nitric  solution  by  the 
immersion  of  polished  plates .  of  copper.  Take  of 
this  silver  20  grains,  supertartrate  of  potass,  2 
drachms,  common  salt,  2  drachms,  and  of  alum, 
half  a  drachm.  Mix  the  whole  well  together. 

Then  take  the  article  to  be  silvered,  clean  it  well, 
and  rub  some  of  the  mixture,  previously  a  little 
moistened,  upon  its  surface.  The  silver  surface  may 
be  polished  with  a  piece  of  soft  leather. 

The  dial-plates  of  clocks,  scales  of  barometers, 
&c.,  are  plated  thus. 


MOSAIC  GOLD   (or  molu\ 

MAY  be  thus  made :  take  copper  and  zinc,  equal 
parts;  mix  them  together  at  the  lowest  possible 
temperature  at  which  copper  will  fuse,  and  stii 
until  a  perfect  mixture  of  the  metals  is  effected. 
Then  add  gradually  small  portions  of  zinc  at  a  time, 
until  the  alloy  acquires  a  proper  colour,  which  is 


BRONZING  BRASS.  211 

perfectly  white  while  in  the  melted  state.  It  should 
then  at  once  be  cast  into  figured  moulds.  This 
alloy  should  contain  from  52  to  55  per  cent,  of  zinc. 


TO   BRONZE  BRASS,   ETC. 

To  6  pounds  of  muriatic  acid,  add  2  pounds  of 
oxide  of  iron,  and  1  pound  of  yellow  arsenic.  Mix 
all  well  together,  and  let  it  stand  for  two  days,  fre- 
quently shaking  it  in  the  mean  time,  when  it  is  fit 
for  use. 

Whatever  may  be  the  article  which  requires 
bronzing,  let  it  be  perfectly  cleaned,  and  free  from 
grease ;  immerse  it  in  the  above  solution,  and  let  it 
stand  for  three  hours,  or  rather  till  it  will  turn  en- 
tirely black.  Then  wash  the  spirits  off,  and  dry  it 
in  sawdust,  which  has  been  found  the  best. 

After  the  article  is  perfectly  dry,  apply  to  it  some 
wet  black,  the  same  as  used  for  stones,  and  then 
polish  it  with  some  dry  black-lead  and  a  brush,  and 
it  is  ready  for  lacquering. 


212  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


LACQUERS. 

LACQUERS  are  used  upon  polished  metals  and  wood, 
to  impart  the  appearance  of  gold.  As  they  are  want- 
ed of  different  depths  and  shades  of  colours,  it  is  best 
to  keep  a  concentrated  solution  of  each  colouring 
ingredient  ready,  so  that  it  may  at  any  time  be 
added  to  produce  any  desired  tint. 

1.  Deep  Grold-coloured  Lacquer. — Seed  lac,  three 
ounces;    turmeric,   one    ounce;    dragon's   blood,    a 
quarter  of  an  ounce ;  alcohol,  one  pint.     Digest  for 
a  week,  frequently  shaking.    Decant  and  filter. 

2.  Gold-coloured    Lacquer. — Ground   turmeric, 
one  pound;   gamboge,  an  ounce  and  a  half;   gum- 
sandarach,  three  pounds  and  a  half;  shell  lac,  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  (all  in  powder) ;  rectified  spirits 
of  wine,  two  gallons.     Dissolve,  strain,  and  add  one 
pint  of  turpentine  varnish. 

3.  Rel-coloured  Lacquer. — Spanish  anatto,  three 
pounds  ;  dragon's  blood,  one  pound ;  gum-sandarach, 
three  pounds  and  a  quarter;  rectified  spirits,  two 


LACQUERS.  213 

gallons;    turpentine  varnish,  one  quart.     Dissolve 
and  mix  as  the  last. 

4.  Pale  Brass-coloured  Lacquer. — Gamboge,  cut 
small,  one  ounce ;   cape  aloes,  ditto,  three  ounces ; 
pale  shell  lac,  one  pound ;  rectified  spirits,  two  gal- 
lons.    Dissolve  and  mix  as  No.  2. 

5.  Seed  lac,  dragon's  blood,  anatto,  and  gamboge, 
of  each  a  quarter  of  a  pound ;  saffron,  one  ounce ; 
rectified  spirits  of  wine,  ten  pints.     Dissolve  and 
mix  as  No.  2. 


The  following  receipts  make  most  excellent  lac- 
quers. 

1.  G-old  Lacquer. — Put  into  a  clean  four-gallon 
tin    1    pound  of  ground   turmeric,  1J    ounces    of 
powdered  gamboge,  3  J  ounces  of  powdered  gum-san- 
darach,  f  of  a  pound  of  shell  lac,  and  2  gallons  of 
spirits  of  wine.    After  being  agitated,  dissolved,  and 
strained,  add  one  pint  of  turpentine  varnish,  well 
mixed. 

2.  Red  Lacquer.-  -2  gallons  of  spirits  of  wine, 
1  pound  of  dragon's  blood,  3  pounds  of  Spanish 


214  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

anatto,  3J  pounds  of  gum-sandarach,  2  pints  of  tur- 
pentine.    Made  as  No.  1  lacquer. 

3.  Pale  Brass  Lacquer. — 2  gallons  of  spirits  of 
wine,  3  ounces  of  cape  aloes  cut  small,  1  pound  of 
fine  pale  shell  lac,  1  ounce  of  gamboge  cut  small, 
no  turpentine  varnish.     Made  exactly  as  before. 

But  observe,  that  those  who  make  lacquers,  fre- 
quently want  some  paler,  and  some  darker,  and 
sometimes  inclining  more  to  the  particular  tint  of 
certain  of  the  component  ingredients.  Therefore, 
if  a  four-ounce  phial  of  a  strong  solution  of  each 
ingredient  be  prepared,  a  lacquer  of  any  tint  can 
be  procured  at  any  time. 

4.  Pale    Tin   Lacquer. — Strongest    alcohol,    4 
ounces ;    powdered  turmeric,  2  drachms ;   hay  saf- 
fron, 1  scruple ;  dragon's  blood  in  powder,  2  scru- 
ples ;  red  saunders,  J  scruple.     Infuse  this  mixture 
in  the  cold  for  48  hours,  pour  off  the  clear,  and 
strain  the  rest;    then  add   powdered   shell  lac,  J 
ounce ;   sandarach,  1  drachm ;    mastic,  1  drachm ; 
Canada  balsam,  1   drachm.     Dissolve    this   in  the 
cold  by  frequent  agitation,  laying  the  bottle  on  its 
side,  to    present  a  greater  surface  to  the  alcohol. 
When   dissolv '(?.,  add  40  drops   of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine. 


LACQUEE   AND   BRONZE   LIQUID.  215 

5.  Another  Deep  Gold  Lacquer. — Strongest  alco- 
hol, 4  ounces ;  Spanish  anatto,  8  grains ;  powdered 
turmeric,  2  drachms ;  red  saunders,  12  grains.  In- 
fuse and  add  shell  lac,  &c.,  as  to  the  pale  tin  lac- 
quer ;  and  when  dissolved  add  30  drops  of  spirits 
of  turpentine. 

N.  B.  Lacquer  should  always  stand  till  it  is  quite 
fine,  before  it  is  used. 


GREEN   BRONZE   LIQUID. 

TAKE  one  quart  of  strong  vinegar,  .half  an  ounce 
of  mineral  green,  half  an  ounce  of  raw  umber,  half 
an  ounce  of  sal-ammoniac,  half  an  ounce  of  gum 
arabic,  two  ounces  of  French  berries,  half  an  ounce 
of  copperas,  and  about  three  ounces  of  green  oats, 
if  these  can  be  procured,  although,  if  they  cannot, 
the  preparation  will  succeed  perfectly  well  without 
them.  Dissolve  the  whole  in  a  strong  earthen  ves- 
selj  adding  the  berries  and  the  oats,  over  a  gentle 
fire ;  bring  the  compound  to  boil,  then  allow  it  to 
cool,  and  run  it  through  a  flannel  bag,  when  the 
bronze  will  be  ready  for  use. 


216  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER^ 


TO   SILVER  IVORY. 

IMMERSE  a  slip  of  ivory  in  a  weak  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  let  it  remain  until  the  solution 
has  imparted  to  it  a  deep  yellow  colour.  Then  take 
it  out,  and  immerse  it  in  a  tumbler  of  clear  water, 
and  expose  it  in  the  water  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
After  it  has  been  exposed  thus  for  about  three  hours, 
the  ivory  acquires  a  black  colour,  which  on  being 
burnished  soon  becomes  a  brilliant  silver  one. 


ZINCING. 

COPPER  and  brass  vessels  may  be  covered  with  a 
firmly  adherent  layer  of  pure  zinc,  by  boiling  them 
in  contact  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  pure 
zinc  turnings  being  at  the  same  time  present  in  con- 
siderable excess.  The  same  object  may  be  attained 
by  means  of  zinc,  and  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac, 
or  caustic  potassa. 


TABLES. 


217 


TABLE  I. — METAL  PLATES. 

THIS  table  shows  the  weight  of  a  square  foot 
of  different  metal  plates,  of  thicknesses  of  one  six- 
teenth of  an  inch  to  one  inch,  advancing  by  a 
sixteenth : — 


Six- 

teenths. 

Wrought 
Iron. 

Cast 
Iron. 

Cast 
Copper. 

Cast 
Brass. 

Cast 
Lead 

Cast 
Zino 

Caat 
Tin. 

Cast 
Silver. 

Ibs. 

Iks. 

Iba. 

lt>3. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

26s. 

Ibs. 

1 

2.5 

2.8 

2.9 

2.7 

3.7 

2.3 

2.4 

3.4 

2 

5.1 

4.7 

5.7 

5.5 

7.4 

4.7 

4.7 

6.8 

3 

7.6 

7.0 

8.6 

8.2 

11.1 

7.0 

7.1 

10.2 

4 

10.1 

9.4 

11.4 

11.0 

14.8 

9.4 

9.5 

13.6 

5 

12.7 

11.7 

14.3 

13.7 

18.5 

11.7 

11.9 

17.0 

6 

15.2 

14.0 

17.2 

16.4 

22.2 

14.0 

14.2 

20.5 

7 

17.9 

16.4 

20.0 

19.2 

25.9 

16.4 

16.6 

23.9 

8 

20.3 

18.8 

22.9 

21.9 

29.5 

18.7 

19.0 

27.3 

9 

22.8 

21.1 

25.7 

24.6 

33.2 

21.1 

21.4 

30.7 

10 

25.4 

23.5 

28.6 

27.4 

36.9 

23.4 

23.7 

34.1 

11 

27.9 

25.8 

31.4 

30.1 

40.6 

25.7 

26.1 

37.5 

12 

30.4 

28.1 

34.3 

32.9 

44.3 

28.1 

28.5 

40.9 

13 

32.9 

30.5 

37.2 

35.6 

48.0 

30.4 

30.9 

44.3 

14 

35.5 

32.9 

40.0 

38.3 

51.7 

32.8 

33.2 

47.7 

15 

38.0 

35.2 

42.9 

41.2 

55.4 

35.1 

35.6 

51.1 

16 

40.6 

37.6 

45.8 

43.9 

59.1 

37.5 

38.0 

54.6 

TABLE  II. — CAST  METAL  BALLS. 


Dl»m.-/n.. 

Iron.  —  lb». 

Copper.—  Ibs. 

Brass.-»«. 

Lead.  -Iba. 

i 

A 

1 

A 

A 

2 

1.1 

1.3 

1.3 

1.7 

3 

3.7 

4.5 

4.3 

5.8 

4 

8.7 

10.7 

10.2 

13.8 

5 

17.0 

20.8 

19.9 

26.9 

6 

29.5 

35.9 

34.3 

46.4 

7 

46.8 

57.1 

54.5 

73.7 

8               69.8 

85.2 

81.4 

110.1 

9 

99.4 

121.3 

115.9 

156.7 

10 

136.4 

166.4 

159.0 

215.0 

218 


BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


TABLE  III. — CAST  IRON  PIPES. 

THIS  table  shows  the  weight  of  cast  iron  pipes 
1  foot  long,  of  bores  from  1  inch  to  12  inches  diam- 
eter, advancing  by  J  of  an  inch ;  and  of  thicknesses 
from  J  inch  to  1J  inch,  advancing  by  J  of  an  inch. 


Bore. 

J/4 

% 

K 

% 

ZA 

% 

1 

1% 

IK    , 

In. 

{68. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

lb,. 

Ibs.      : 

I 

3.1 

5.1 

7.4 

10.0 

12.9 

16.1 

19.6 

23.5 

27.6 

\i/ 

3.7 

6.0 

8.6 

11.5 

14.7 

18.3 

22.1 

26.2 

30.7 

1  1/ 

4.3 

6.9 

9.8 

13.0 

16.6 

20.4 

24.5 

29.0 

33.7 

1% 

4.9 

7.8 

11.1 

14.6 

18.4 

22.6 

27.0 

31.8 

36.8 

2 

5.5 

8.8 

12.3 

16.1 

20.3 

24.7 

29.5 

34.5 

39.9 

2V4 

6.1 

9.7 

13.5 

17.6 

22.1 

26.8 

31.9 

37.3 

43.0 

2/1 

6.7 

10.6 

14.7 

19.2 

23.9 

28.9 

34.4 

40.0 

46.0 

2% 

7.4 

11.5 

16.0 

20.7 

25.7 

31.1 

36.8 

42.8 

49.1 

3 

8.0 

12.4 

17.2 

22.2 

27.6 

33.3 

39.3 

45.6 

52.2 

3% 

8.6 

13.3 

18.4 

23.8 

29.5 

35.4 

41.7 

48.3 

55.2 

3g 

9.2 

14.2 

19.6 

25.3 

31.3 

37.6 

44.2 

51.1 

58.3 

9.8 

15.2 

20.9 

26.9 

33.1 

39.7 

46.6 

53.8 

61.4 

4:  4 

10.4 

16.1 

22.1 

28.4 

35.0 

41.9 

49.1 

56.6 

64.4 

4K 

11.1 

17.1 

23.4 

30.0 

36.9 

44.1 

51.6 

59.4 

67.6 

4Vi 

11.7 

18.0 

24.5 

31.4 

38.7 

46.2 

54.0 

62.1 

70.6 

4% 

12.3 

18.9 

25.8 

33.0 

40.5 

48.3 

56.5 

64.9 

73.6 

5 

12.9 

19.8 

27.0 

34.5 

42.3 

50.5 

58.9 

67.6 

76.7 

5K 

13.5 

20.7 

28.2 

36.1 

44.2 

52.6 

61.4 

70.4 

79.8 

5)| 

14.1 

21.6 

29.5 

37.6 

46.0 

54.8 

63.8 

73.2 

82.8 

6/4 

14.7 

22.6 

30.7 

39.1 

47.9 

56.9 

66.3 

76.0 

85.9 

6 

15.3 

23.5 

31.9 

40.7 

49.7 

59.1 

68.7 

78.7 

88.8 

6K 

16.0 

24.4 

33.1 

42.2 

51.5 

61.2 

71.2 

81.2 

92.0 

3 

16.6 

25.3 

34.4 

43.7 

53.4 

63.4 

73.4 

84.2 

95.1 

91 

17.2 

26.2 

35.6 

•45.3 

55.2 

65.3 

76.1 

87.0 

98.2 

7 

17.8 

27.2 

36.8 

46.8 

56.8 

67.7 

78.5 

89.7 

101.2 

7/4 

18.4 

28.1 

38.1 

48.1 

58.9 

69.8 

81.0 

92.5 

104.3 

7/1 

19.0 

29.0 

39.1 

49.9 

60.7 

72.0 

83.5 

95.3 

107.4 

7?l 

19.6 

29.7 

40.5 

51.4 

62.6 

74.1 

85.9 

98.0 

110.5 

8 

20.0 

30.8 

41.7 

52.9 

64.4 

76.2 

88.4 

100.8 

113.5 

20.9 

31.7 

43.0 

54.5 

66.3 

78.4 

90.8 

103.5 

116.6 

8;% 

21.7 

32.9 

44.4 

56.2 

68.3 

80.8 

93.5 

106.5 

119.9 

$0 

22.1 

33.6 

45.4 

57.5 

70.0 

82.7 

95.7 

109.1 

122.7 

9 

22.7 

34.5 

46.6 

59.1 

71.8 

84.8 

98.2 

111.8 

125.8 

9K 

23.3 

35.4 

47.9 

60.6 

73.6 

87.0 

100.6 

114.6 

128.9 

QV/ 

23.9 

36.4 

49.1 

62.1 

75.5 

89.1 

103.1 

117.4 

131.9 

9% 

24.6 

37.3 

50.3 

63.7 

77.3 

91.3 

105.5 

120.1 

135.0 

10 

25.2 

38.2 

51.5 

65.2 

79.2 

93.4 

108.0 

122.8 

138.1 

10K 

25.8 

39.1 

52.8 

66.7 

81.0 

95.6 

110.4 

125.6 

141.1 

loll 

26.4 

40.0 

54.0 

68.3 

82.8 

97.7 

112.9 

128.4 

144.2 

10% 

27.0 

41.0 

55.2 

69.8 

84.7 

99.9 

115.4 

131.2 

147.3 

11 

27.6 

41.9 

56.5 

71.3 

86.5 

102.0 

117.8 

133.9 

150.3 

1114 

28.2 

42.8 

57.7 

72.9 

88.4 

104.2 

120.3 

136.7 

153.4 

u3 

28.8 

43.7 

58.9 

74.4 

90.2 

106.3 

122.7 

139.4 

156.4 

HM 

29.5 

44.6 

60.1 

75.9 

92.0 

108.5 

125.2 

142.2 

169.5 

12 

301 

45.6 

61.4 

77.5 

93.6 

110.6 

127.6 

145.0 

162.6 

TABLES. 


219 


TABLE  IV. — CAST  METAL  CYLINDERS.* 


Diam.-/««. 

Iron.  —  lb». 

Copper.-H>«. 

Brus.-lte. 

Lead—lfa. 

1 

2.5 

3.0 

2.9 

3.9 

2 

9.8 

12.0 

11.4 

15.5 

3 

22.1 

27.0 

25.8 

34.8 

4 

39.3 

47.9 

45.8 

61.9 

5 

61.4 

74.9 

71.6 

96.7 

6 

88.4 

107.8 

103.0 

139.3 

7 

120.3 

146.8 

140.2 

189.6 

8 

157.1 

191.7 

183.2 

247.7 

9 

198.8 

242.7 

231.8 

313.4 

10 

245.4 

299.5 

286.2 

387.0 

TABLE  V. — SPECIFIC    GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT    OF 
MATERIALS. 


METALS. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

m.  of  i 

cubic  foot. 

Wt.  of  1 
cubic  Inch. 

ox. 

16*. 

oz. 

Antimony,  cart 

6702 

418.9 

3.878 

Arsenic  ..... 

5763 

360.2 

3.335 

Bismuth,  cast        .... 

9822 

613.9 

6.684 

Brass,  cast        .           .           . 

8396 

524.8 

4.859 

Brass,  wire.           .... 

8544 

534.0 

4.944 

8222 

513.4 

4.753 

Cobalt,  cast            .... 

7811 

488.2 

4.520 

Copper,  cast      .... 

8788 

549.3 

5.086 

Copper,  sheet         .... 

8915 

557.2 

5.159 

Copper,  wire     .... 
Gold,  pure  ..... 

8878 
19258 

554.9 
1203.6 

5.136 
11.161 

Gold,  hammered 

19362 

1210.1 

11.205 

Gold,  standard       .... 

17647 

1102.9 

10.230 

Gun  metal        .           .                       . 

8784 

549.0 

5.083 

Iron,  bars  wrought 

7786 

486.6 

4.506 

Iron,  cast          .... 

7207 

450.4 

4.171 

Lead,  cast    . 

11352 

709.5 

6.569 

Mercury,  solid  .... 

15632 

977.0 

9.046 

Mercury,  fluid        .... 

13568 

848.0 

7.852 

Nickel,  cast      .... 

7807 

487.9 

4.518 

Platinum,  pure      .... 

19500 

1218.8 

11.285 

Platinum,  hammered  . 

20336 

1271.0 

11.767 

Silver,  pure 

10474 

654.6 

6.061 

Silver,  hammerr»i 

10511 

656.9 

6.083 

Silver,  standard     .... 

10534 

658.4 

6.096 

Steel,  tempered 

7818 

488.6 

4.524 

Steel,  soft    

7833 

489.6 

4.533 

Tin,  cast           .... 

7291 

455.7 

4.244 

Type  metal.            .... 
Zinc,  cast          .... 

10450 
7190 

653.1 
449.4 

6.047 
4.161  J 

(  *  The  cylinders  are  solid,  each  one  foot  in  length 


220     .  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 


TABLE   VI. — SPECIFIC   COHESION   AND    STRENGTH    OF 
METALS. 

IN  the  following  table  of  specific  cohesion,  the  co- 
hesion of  plate  glass  is  assumed  as  unity.  If  any 
of  the  numbers  in  this  table  be  multiplied  by  9240, 
the  product  will  express  the  force  in  pounds,  which 
would  tear  asunder  a  bar  of  the  corresponding  ma- 
terial, of  one  inch  square  of  transverse  section. 
Thus,  the  specific  cohesion  of  steel,  razor  temper,  is 
15.927 ;  whence  the  extreme  cohesion  of  a  bar  one 
inch  square  is  15.92T  X  9240  =  147,165.48  pounds. 


Specific  cohesion. 

Antimony,  cast 

. 

0.118 

Bismuth,  cast 

.  0.845  to 

0.319 

Copper,  wire           . 

•        • 

6.606 

"         cast,  Barbary     . 

. 

2.396 

"          "     Japan 

»        • 

2.152 

Gold,  wire              . 

. 

3.279 

"     cast      .        .        . 

•        • 

2.171 

Iron,  wire      .         .        • 

12.004  to 

9.108 

"      bar 

.  8.964  to 

5.839 

"        "  best  quality       . 

L     -».;         , 

7.006 

«        "  German,  B  R    .         .  9.880  to  6.514 


SPECIFIC    COHESION    OF   METALS.  221 

Specific  cohesion 

Iron,  bar,  Swedish,  L  .  .  9.445  to  7.296 
"  "  Liege  .  .  .  8.794  to  6.621 
"  "  German,  L  .  .  9.119  to  7.382 
•<  "  Spanish  .  .  V  '.  8.685 
"  "  Oosement  .  .  8.142  to  7.296 
"  "  fine  grained  .  .  '*l' "  5.306 
"  "  medium  fineness  .  .  3.618 
"  "  coarse  grained  .  .  2.172 

"  cast,  French  .  .  .  7.470  to  4.000 
"  "  German  .  .  .  7.250 
*  "  English  .  .  5.520  to  4.334 

Lead,  milled  .  .  .  .  0.354 

"  wire  ....  0.334  to  0.270 
"  cast,  English  .  .  .  6.094 

Platinum,  wire        .         .         .  5.995  to  5.625 

Silver,  wire 4.090 

"  cast 4.342 

Steel,  razor  temper  .  .  .  15.927 
"  soft  .  ...  .  .  12.739 

Tin,  wire 0.757 

"  cast,  English  block  .  .  0.706  to  0.565 
"  "  Banca  ....  0.391 
"  "  Malacca  ....  0.342 

Zinc,  wire  .  .  .  .  2.394 

"  patent  sheet  .  :;.  .  .  1.762 
u  cast,  Goslar  .  .  0.312  to  0.286 


222  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 


TABLE  VII. — DIRECT   COHESION   OP   ME7<iLS. 

THE  numbers  in  this  table  of  experiments  express 
the  direct  cohesion  of  bars  one  inch  square  in  tons, 
of  2240  pounds. 

Tons.  Ibs 

Iron  bar,  cast  horizontally      .         .         8  32 

"          "    vertically  8  69 

Cast  steel,  previously  tilted    .  59  93 

Blistered  steel,  reduced  by  hammer       59  43 

Shear          «  "  "  56  97 

Swedish  iron  "  "  82  15 

English     "  «  "  24  93 

Hard  gun  metal     .         .         .  16  23 

Wrought  copper,  reduced  by  hammer     15  8 

Cast  "  "  "  8  51 

Fine  yellow  brass  .         .        .        .         8  01 

Cast  tin         . ..      .        .         .         .        2  11 

Cast  lead      ....        .         .         0  81 

Wrought  iron,  mean  of  26  experiments, 

Brunei  31  20 

"  "          9         Brown  29  25 

«  «          8          Te2ford25  00 

Iron  cable,          «        13         Brown  21  25 


RESISTANCE   OF   METALS.  223 


TABLE  vm. — RESISTANCE  OF  METALS  TO  PRESSURE. 

IN  this  table  of  experiments  the  number  of  pounds 
are  the  weights  required  to  crush  cubes  of  one-quar- 
ter inch  in  the  edge. 

Ibs. 

Iron,  cast  vertically       .         .         .  11136 

"      "    horizontally    .         .         .  10114 

•  Copper,  cast          ....  7318 

"        wrought   ....  6440 

Brass 10304 

Tin,  cast       .  966 

Lead,  cast     •         .        •         .  483 


TABLE   IX. — RESISTANCE   OF  METALS  TO  TORSION. 

THIS  table  of  experiments  by  Brandreih,  exhibits 
only  the  relative  resistance  to  torsion,  that  of  lead 
being  assumed  as  unity. 


224  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

Ibs. 

Cast  steel       .         ,        .         .         .  19.56 

Shear  steel    .        ,        .        •        *  17.06 

Blister  steel   .     '-;'•       .     '•.:     s;  16.69 

English  iron  .         *.   .^ ,-.  .. .>..-  .  *  10.13 

Swedish  iron           .         .        ;,        V  9.50 

Hard  gun  metal      .         .        .        v  5.00 

Fine  yellow  brass  .         .        .         .   "  4.69 

Copper  .         .        .        .        .         .  4.31 

Tin        .      ;.        .        .      ;^        .  1.44 

Lead  1.00 


GOLD  AND   SILVER   SOLDERS. 

Hard  Solder  for  G-old  is  prepared  from  gold  acd 
silver,  or  from  gold  and  copper,  or  from  gold,  silver, 
and  copper. 

Q-old  Solder.— -66.6  parts  of  gold,  16.7  parts  of 
silver,  and  16.7  parts  of  copper. 

Hard  Solder  for  Silver. — Equal  parts  of  silver 
and  brass ;  but  made  easier  of  fusion  by  the  admix- 
ture of  one-sixteenth  of  zinc. 


ON    SOLDERS    AND    SOLDERING.  225 

Another  Silver  Solder. — 19  parts  fine  silver,  1 
part  copper,  10  parts  brass. 

Another  Silver  Solder. — 66.6  parts  silver,  30.4 
parts  copper,  3.4  parts  brass. 


BRASS   SOLDER. 

BRASS  mixed  with  a  sixth,  an  eighth,  or  even  one- 
half  of  zinc. 

Another  Brass  Solder. — 12  pounds  copper,  and 
11  pounds  of  zinc. 


METHOD   OP   SOLDERING   GOLD   AND   SILVER. 

AFTER  the  solder  is  cast  into  an  ingot,  it  would 
be  more  ready  for  use  if  you  were  to  draw  it  into 
small  wire,  or  flat  it  between  two  rollers.  After 
that  cut  it  into  little  bits,  then  join  your  work 
together  with  fine  soft  iron  wire,  and  with  a  camel's- 
hair  pencil  dipped  in  borax,  finely  powdered 

15 


226  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

well  moistened  with  water,  touch  the  joint  intended 
to  be  soldered,  placing  a  little  solder  on  the  joint. 
Apply  it  on  a  large  piece  of  charcoal,  and  with  a 
blow-pipe  and  lamp  blow  upon  it  through  the  flame 
until  it  melts  the  solder,  and  it  is  done. 


TO  CLEANSE  SILVER  AFTER  IT  IS  SOLDERED. 

MAKE  it  just  red  hot,  and  let  it  cool ;  then  boil 
it  in  alum  water,  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  it  will 
be  as  clean  as  when  new. 


TO  CLEANSE  GOLD  AFTER  IT  IS  SOLDERED. 

PUT  it  through  the  same  process  as  silver,  but, 
instead  of  alum-water,  boil  it  in  wine  and  sal-ammo- 
niac. 


SILVER-SOLDER  FOR  JEWELLERS. 

19  dwts.  of  fine  silver,  1  dwt.  of  copper,  and  10 
iiwts.  of  brass. 


ALLOYS   AND    SOLDER.  227 

TRINKET   COMPOSITION. 

75  parts  gold,  25  parts  copper,  and  a  little  silver 


SILVER-PLATE   AND   MEDAL   ALLOT. 

95  parts  silver,  and  5  parts  of  copper. 


GOLD   COIN   OF   AMERICA    ALLOY. 

90  parts  gold,  2.5  silver,  and  7.5  copper. 


SOLDER  FOR   IRON. 


NOTHING  here  is  necessary  but  good  tough  brass, 
with  borax,  applied,  mixed  with  water  to  the  con 
sistence  of  cream. 


228  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


AUTOGENOUS  SOLDERING. 

AUTOGENOUS  soldering  takes  place  by  the  fusion  of 
the  two  edges  of  metals  themselves  without  interpos- 
ing another  metallic  alloy  as  a  bond  of  union.  This 
is  accomplished  by  directing  a  jet  of  burning  hydro- 
gen gas  from  a  blow-pipe  provided  with  a  Daniell's 
cock  upon  the  surfaces  or  edges  to  be  soldered  to- 
gether. The  hydrogen  gas  is  developed  by  the 
action  of  hydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid  upon  zinc  shav- 
ings, the  generated  gas  being  collected  in  strong 
vessels  or  bags  of  stout  canvas,  made  gas-proof  by 
several  coats  of  rubber  varnish.  The  DanielFs  cock 
is  so  arranged  that  the  gas  is  mixed  with  atmospheric 
oxygen  only  at  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  burnt,  thus 
avoiding  all  danger  of  explosions.  In  soldering  by 
the  autogenous  process,  the  works  are  first  prepared 
and  scraped  clean  as  usual.  The  hydrogen  gas  is 
then  ignited,  and  after  regulating  the  flame,  air  is  ad- 
mitted until  the  flame  assumes  a  fine  pointed  charac- 
ter, with  which  the  work  is  united.  This  method  of 
soldering  is  occasionally  employed  in  making  small 
additions  to  old  castings,  and  also  in  repairing  trifling 
holes  and  defects  in  new  ones. 


SOFT   SOLDER. 


229 


SOFT    SOLDERS. 

TIN  and  lead  in  equal  parts.  Easier  of  fusion 
still  is  tin,  lead,  and  bismuth,  in  equal  parts ;  or 
one  or  two  bismuth,  one  lead,  and  one  tin,  easiei 
still. 

For  soft  soldering  brass,  tin-foil  makes  a  fino 
juncture,  applied  between  the  joints,  care  being 
taken  to  avoid  too  much  heat.  This  is  most  excellent 
for  fine  brass  work.  The  tin-foil  must  be  moistened 
in  a  strong  solution  of  sal-ammoniac. 


A    SOLDER   FOR   LEAD. 

2  parts  lead  and  1  part  tin.  Its  goodness  is  tried 
by  melting  it  and  pouring  the  bigness  of  a  dollar 
piece  upon  the  table ;  for  if  it  be  good  there  will  prise 
little  bright  spots  in  it.  Apply  rosin  when  yov  use 
the  solder. 


230  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


PLUMBER'S  SOLDER. 

1  part  bismuth,  5  parts  lead,  and  3  parts  tin, 
forms  a  compound  of  great  importance  in  the  arts. 


COMPOSITIONS   OF  PEWTER. 

1.  100  parts  tin,  17  parts  of  antimony ;  the  French 
add  a  little  copper. 

2.  12  pounds  of  tin,  1  pound  of  antimony,  4 
ounces  of  copper. 

3.  7  pounds  of  tin,  1  pound  of  lead,  6  ounces  cop- 
per, 2  ounces  zinc.     Melt  the  copper  first. 


WHITE   METAL. 


10  ounces  lead,  6  ounces  bismuth,  and  4  drachms 
of  antimony ;  or,  2  pounds  of  antimony,  8  ounces  of 
brass,  and  10  ounces  of  tin. 


COMPOSITION    OF   SOFT   METAL.  231 


MOSAIC  MIXTURE. 

EQUAL  parts  of  tin,  bismuth,  and  mercury,  forms 
a  metal  used  for  various  ornamental  purposes. 


SILVERY-LOOKING   METAL. 


A  VERY  fine  silvery-looking  metal  is  made  from 
100  parts  tin,  8  parts  antimony,  1  part  bismuth,  wid 
4  parts  copper. 


METAL  FOR  FLUTE  VALVE   KEYS. 

4  ounces  of  lead  and  2  ounces  of  antimony. 


GERMAN  TITANIUM. 


2  drachms  of  copper,  1  ounce  of  antimony,  and 
12  ounces  of  tin. 


232  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


SPANISH  TITANIUM. 

8  ounces  of  scrap  iron  or  steel,  1  pound  of  anti- 
mony, and  3  ounces  of  nitre. 

The  iron  or  steel  must  be  heated  to  whiteness, 
and  the  antimony  and  nitre  added  in  small  portions. 
Two  ounces  of  this  compound  are  sufficient  to  harden 
one  pound  of  tin. 


BRITANNIA   METAL. 


4  ounces  of  plate  brass,  4  ounces  of  tin ;  when 
fused  add  4  ounces  of  bismuth,  and  4  ounces  of  an- 
timony. This  composition  is  added  at  discretion  tc 
melted  tin. 


COLUMBIA   METAL. 


4J  pounds  of  tin,  \  pound  of  bismuth,  \  pound  of 
antimony,  and  \  pound  of  lead ;  or,  100  pounds  of 
tin,  8  pounds  of  antimony,  1  pound  of  bismuth,  and 


TYPE   METALS.  283 

4  pounds  of  copper.     This  alloy  is  Jised  for  making 
tea-pots,  and  other  vessels  which  imitate  silver. 


TYPE   METAL. 

10  pounds  of  lead,  and  2  ounces  of  antimony. 
The  antimony  is  added  when  the  lead  is  in  a  state 
of  fusion.  The  antimony  gives  hardness  to  the  lead, 
And  prevents  its  contraction  when  cooling. 

for  Small  Types. — 9  pounds  of  lead,  2  pounds 
of  antimony,  and  1  pound  of  bismuth.  The  anti- 
mony and  bismuth  are  added  when  the  lead  is  melted. 
This  alloy  expands  in  cooling ;  the  mould  is  there- 
fore entirely  filled  when  the  metal  is  cold,  and  no 
blemish  is  found  in  the  letters.  Stereotype  plates 
are  formed  of  this  alloy.  Some  employ  tin  instead 
of  bismuth. 

Type  Metal  of  the  French  Letter  Founders. — 
Four-fifths  of  lead,  and  one-fifth  of  regulus  of  anti- 
•nony. 

The  letter  founders  of  Berlin  use  11  pounds  of 


234  BRASS    AND    IRON    FObNDER. 

antimony,  25  pounds  of  lead,  and  5  pounds  of  iron 
Many  add  tin,  copper,  and  brass ;  while  some  make 
their  types  from  3  parts  lead,  to  1  of  antimony. 


GERMAN   SILVER. 

1.  25  parts  nickel,  20  parts  zinc,  and  60  parts 
copper.     If  for  casting  add  3  parts  of  lead. 

2.  16  parts  copper,  8  parts  zinc,  and  3J  parts 
nickel. 

3.  8  parts  of  copper,  3J  parts  of  zinc,  and  2  parts 
of  nickel. 

4.  28  parts  copper,  13  parts  zinc,  and  7J  parts 
nickel. 

5.  Copper,  8  parts;   zinc,  3J  parts;   nickel  3 
parts. 

This  last  is  a  very  beautiful  compound.  Tt  baa 
the  appearance  of  silver  a  little  below  standard.  By 
some  persons  it  is  even  preferred  to  the  more  ex- 


SPECULUM  METALS.  235 

pensive  compound.     Manufacturers  are  strongly  re- 
commended not  to  use  a  metal  inferior  to  this. 


SPECULUM   METAL. 

1.  Copper,  64  parts ;  grain  tin,  29  parts.     Melt 
the  metals  separately,  under  a  little  black  flux.    In- 
corporate  thoroughly   hy  stirring  with    a   wooden 
spatula;   then  run  the  metal  in  the  mould,  so  that 
the  face  of  the  intended  mirror  may  be  downwards. 

2.  Copper,  32  parts ;  tin,  14  parts ;  arsenic,  2 
parts.     A  very  good  metal. 

3.  Copper,  32  parts ;  tin,  13  J  parts ;  arsenic,  1J 
parts. 

4.  Copper,  32  parts;  tin,  15  parts;  arsenic,  2 
parts.     Better  than  2  and  3. 

5.  Copper,  32  parts ;  tin,  15  parts  ;  brass,  1  part ; 
silver,  1  part;  arsenic,  1  part.     A  most  excellent 
metal,  and  Dy  far  the  whitest,  hardest,  and  most  re- 
dective  metal  I  have  ever  yet  met  with. 


236  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

6.  Copper,  6  parts;  tin,  2  parts;  arsenic,  1  part 
Sir  Isaac  Newton's  mixture.  It  is  a  compact  metal 
enough,  but  very  yellow  when  polished. 

T.  Copper,  3  parts ;  tin,  1 J  parts.  Compact,  and 
whiter  than  the  last. 

8.  Brass,  6  parts ;  tin,  1  part.    Compact,  but  too 
yellow. 

9.  2  parts  of  7th  composition,  and  1  part  of  8th. 
Compact,  but  much  too  yellow  when  polished.     7, 
8,  and  9,  are  experiments  by  Professor  Molyneux, 
F.  R.  S. 

10.  Copper,  32  parts ;  tin,  2  parts ;  arsenic,  1 
part.    A  pretty  good  metal,  but  polishes  too  yellow 
Professor  Mudge's  composition. 


REMARKS.  237 


REMARKS. 

IN  melting  arsenic,  nitre  is  a  good  flux  for  fixing 
it  with  other  metals. 

In  using  iron  filings  in  your  compositions,  use 
corrosive  sublimate  (viz.  chloride  of  mercury)  for 
fixing  it. 

Powdered  flint  glass  also  makes  a  most  excellent 
dux  for  copper,  tin,  and  arsenic. 

No.  5.  This  metal,  when  broken,  should  appear 
of  a  bright,  glassy,  and  quicksilver  complexion.  If 
it  appears  hard  and  of  a  dead  white,  more  tin  must 
be  added.  The  copper  will  sometimes  take  sixteen 
ounces  of  tin,  if  it  is  very  pure.  If  it  appears  bluish 
and  rough,  more  copper  or  brass  must  be  added. 

It  is  somewhat  singular  that  arsenic,  though  par 
ticularly  recommended  by  -Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Di . 
Olynthus  Gregory,  and  others,  for  giving  homo- 
geneity to  metallic  compositions,  should  be  so  hastily 
thrown  aside  by  the  founders.  This  imprudent  dis- 
use of  it,  I  can  only  attribute  to  the  disagreeable 
fumes  or  vapours,  which  arise  when  it  is  introduced 
]nto  the  crucible,  to  the  melted  mixture,  which  may 
oroduce  disagreeable  effects  upon  the  operators,  if 


238  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

proper  care  be  not  taken  to  prevent  tneai  from 
being  received  into  the  lungs.  All  the  precaution 
necessary,  is  to  bruise  the  arsenic  coarsely,  and  in- 
troduce it  into  the  crucible  with  a  pair  of  tongs, 
having  tied  it  up  in  a  piece  of  paper,  giving  it  then 
a  stir  with  a  wooden  spatula  made  of  birch,  during 
which  time  retaining  your  breath — avoid  it  till  you 
can  see  no  more  vapours  arise  from  the  crucible, 
when  the  metal  will  be  ready  to  pour. 

The  common  black  flux  is  made  of  two  parts  of 
tartar,  and  one  of  nitre. 

I  have  always  found  from  adding  a  small  quantity 
of  arsenic,  viz.,  from  one-half  ounce  to  one  ounce  to 
the  pound  of  metal,  that  it  would  considerably  im- 
prove even  porous  metal,  and  make  it  harder,  like- 
wise, as  well  as  whiter. 

In  making  speculums,  the  casting  should  be  taken 
from  the  mould  red-hot,  and  put  into  a  quantity  of 
hot  ashes  to  anneal  it,*  or  else  it  will  break  in  the 
sand.  Let  it  remain  in  the  ashes  till  the  whole  be- 
comes cold. 

Professor  Nevil  Masculyne,  speaking  of  arsenic, 
nays — I  have  been  assured  by  two  ingenious  experi- 
mental philosophers  that  the  fumes  of  arsenic,  even 
when  the  garlic  smell  is  very  strong,  are  not  in  thi 
least  prejudicial  to  the  lungs. 


PLATINA.  '239 

A  careful  study  of  the  above  remarks  will  be  of 
inestimable  advantage  to  the  practical  brass  founder, 
saving  him  both  loss  of  work,  as  well  as  loss  of  time. 


PLATINA. 

MIRRORS  for  telescopes,  &c.,  are  made  of  pla 
tina,  of  exquisite  beauty.  The  Spaniards  are  in  the 
habit  of  mixing  it  with  iron,  in  order  to  form  gun- 
barrels,  which  are  said  never  to  rust,  and  which  are 
much  stronger  than  iron  barrels  alone,  as  it  gives  to 
the  iron  a  remarkable  toughness.  It  forms  a  valu- 
able coating  for  copper  and  iron,  and  may  hereafter 
become  precious  for  the  formation  of  coins  and 
medals. 

Platina,  in  its  malleable  state,  may  be  cut  with  a 
knife ;  but  with  steel  it  forms  an  alloy  not  to  be 
touched  with  a  file. 

The  nitro-muriatic  acid  is  the  proper  solvent  foi 
platina. 


BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


ON   THE   PROPERTIES   OF   ARSENIC. 

ARSENIC  is  a  brittle  metal,  and,  in  the  recent  frac- 
ture, of  a  lively  bright  colour,  between  tin- white 
and  lead-gray ;  but  on  exposure  to  the  air  it  soon 
loses  its  metallic  lustre,  and  turns  prismatic,  dull, 
and  at  last  black.  Its  specific  gravity  is,  according 
to  Professor  Mudge,  between  8.310  and  5.763,  ac- 
cording to  its  texture. 

Its  hardness  surpasses  that  of  copper,  but  its 
ductility  is  so  little,  and  it  brittleness  so  great,  that 
it  is  readily  converted  into  a  powder  by  the  hammer. 
It  is  entirely  volatilized  when  heated  to  356°  Fahr, 
It  sublimes  in  close  vessels,  and  then  crystallizes  in 
tetrahedra,  or  octahedra.  When  heated  with  the 
excess  of  air.  it  emits  a  strong  smell  of  garlic,  and 
burns  with  a  bluish  white  flame.  It  combines  with 
sulphur  by  fusion.  It  unites  to  phosphorus,  and 
combines  with  most  of  the  raetals 

Besides  giving  a  white  colour  to  copper,  it  renders 
many  of  the  ductile  metals  brittle.  When  mixed 
with  hyper-oxygenated  muriate  of  potash,  it  deto- 
nates strongly  by  the  stroke  of  a  hammer.  It  ia 
soluble  in  hydrog^  gas  by  heat.  It  does  not  decom- 


EXPERIMENTS.  241 

pose  water  alone ;  it  decomposes  sulphuric  acid  by 
heat.  The  nitric  and  nitrous  acid  oxidate  it  rapidly. 
The  muriatic  acid  attacks  it  with  heat.  The  oxy- 
genated muriatic  acid  (now  termed  chlorine),  when 
in  a  gaseous  state,  inflames  it  instantly.  It  is  nearly 
unalterable  by  the  fluoric,  boracic,  phosphoric,  and 
carbonic  acids.  It  unites  with  alkaline  sulphurets 
and  hydro-sulphurets.  It  is  a  deadly  poison. 

If  you  insert  a  little  arsenic,  reduced  to  fine 
powder,  between  two  polished  plates  of  copper,  and 
bind  closely  together  with  iron  wire,  and  heat  them, 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  copper  plates  will  be  ren- 
dered white  by  the  arsenic. 

Experiment  No.  1.  Experimental  proofs  of  the 
properties  of  arsenic.  Arsenic  burns  and  is  vola* 
tilized  by  heat. — Introduce  into  a  crucible,  made 
red-hot  in  a  coal  fire,  a  small  quantity  of  arsenic, 
and  it  will  begin  to  burn  and  become  volatilized. 
If  this  crucible  be  covered  with  another,  and  the 
joinings  luted  with  clay,  the  arsenic  will  be  found 
in  the  upper  one  in  brilliant  crystals. 

Experiment  No.  2. — The  union  of  arsenic  with 
copper  may  likewise  be  effected  by  fusing  1  part  of 
arsenic  with  4  of  copper,  in  a  common  crucible. 

16 


242  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

The  alloy  produced  is  a  white  metal.  It  is  neces- 
sary in  this  experiment  to  cover  the  substances  in 
the  crucible  with  common  salt,  to  prevent  the  action 
of  the  air. 


FONTAINEMOREAU'S   NEW  ALLOYS   OF   ZINC,   A   SUB- 
STITUTE  FOR   BRONZE,  COPPER,  AND   BRASS. 

AN  invention  of  a  new  alloy  of  zinc,  with  small 
proportions  of  other  metals,  found  to  possess  very 
peculiar  advantages,  has  lately  been  introduced  into 
England,  where  it  has  been  patented  in  the  name 
of  M.  Fontainemoreau.  It  is  likely  to  prove  of 
great  utility  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery,  and 
in  castings  relating  to  the  fine  arts.  As  a  substi- 
tute for  copper  and  bronze  it  already  bids  fair  to  be 
extensively  adopted. 

The  proportions  of  metals  which  have  been  found 
most  advantageous  in  forming  varieties  of  the  alloy, 
after  very  numerous  and  extensive  experiments,  are 
ts  follows : — 

No.  1.  Zinc,  90  parts;  copper,  8  parts;  cast  iron, 
I  part;  lead,  1  part;  100  parts. 


FONTAINEMOREAU'S    ALLOYS.  243 

No.  2.  Zinc,  91  parts ;  copper,  8  parts ,  icad,  1 
part ;  100  parts. 

No.  3.  Zinc,  92  parts ;  copper,  8  parts ;  100 
parts. 

No.  4.  Zinc,  99  parts ;  copper,  1  part ;  100  parts. 

No.  5.  Zinc,  97  parts ;  copper,  2  J  parts ;  cast 
iron,  J  part ;  100  parts. 

No.  6.  Zinc,  97  parts ;  copper,  3  parts ;  100 
parts. 

No.  7.  Zinc,  99J  parts;  cast  iron,  J  part;  100 
parts. 

No.  8.  Zinc,  91 J  parts ;  copper,  8  parts ;  cast 
iron,  J  part ;  100  parts. 

The  proportions  stated  of  any  of  these  metals 
may  be  slightly  varied,  so  long  as  by  such  variation 
the  alloy  is  not  made  too  brittle,  or  too  soft.  For 
instance,  the  proportion  of  copper  may  be  varied 
from  about  1  part  to  about  12  parts,  in  every  hun- 
dred; but  any  greater  proportion  of  copper  than 
this,  and  less  than  that  used  in  forming  common 
brass,  would  make  the  alloy  brittle.  The  propor- 
tion of  cast  iron  may  be  varied  from  about  one- 
quarter  of  a  part,  to  about  two  parts  in  ev^rj-  hun- 
dred. The  proportion  of  lead  may  be  varied  from 
about  one,  to  about  twenty-four  parts  in  everj  hun> 


244  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

died  parts ;  bat  the  presence  of  some  third  metal  is 
necessary  to  produce  a  proper  combination  of  the 
zinc  and  lead.  Instead  of  pure  copper,  or  any  other 
of  the  simple  metals  before  to  be  used,  brass,  or  the 
other  alloys  formed  of  these  metals,  may  be  used. 
But  where  this  is  done,  the  quantity  of  copper  and 
the  simple  metals  contained  in  such  alloys  must  be 
taken  into  account  in  calculating  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  simple  metals  which  the  new  alloy  is  to 
contain  in  reference  to  the  tables  of  component 
parts. 

The  principal  object  of  the  addition  of  the  small 
quantities  of  copper,  cast  iron,  and  lead  to  the  larger 
proportions  of  zinc,  is  to  change  the  manner  of  the 
crystallization  of  the  zinc  after  it  has  been  fused 
and  set  to  cool. 

The  new  alloys  are  of  a  closer  texture,  more 
homogeneous,  and  malleable,  than  simple  zinc,  and 
some  kinds  of  iron ;  are  less  liable  to  oxidation,  and 
of  a  much  finer  grain  than  zinc — somewhat  resem- 
bling that  of  steel,  especially  when  the  alloys  are 
rolled.  They  are  also  easier  filed  than  either  zinc, 
copper,  or  brass,  and  the  filings  do  not  stick  in  and 
clog  the  file. 

N.  B.  By  casting  the  new  alloys  in  metallic 
moulds,  their  hardness  and  homogeneity  is  increasedr 


BRONZING    THE   ALLOYS.  245 

and  a  sort  of  temper  is  imparted  to  them,  resembling 
or  approaching  to  steel. 

For  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  alloys  which 
are  of  a  silvery-gray  colour,  perfectly  suitable  as 
substitutes  for  copper,  bronze,  brass,  and  other 
metals,  the  colour  proper  to  the  metals  of  which 
they  are  intended  to  be  substitutes,  is  imparted 
to  them  by  means  of  any  solution  of  copper.  The 
hydrochlorate  of  copper  is  found  to  answer  best — 

Firstly. — For  giving  the  alloys  a  blackish-bronze 
colour,  they  are  treated  with  a  solution  of  the  salt 
of  copper,  diluted  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
water,  and  a  small  quantity  of  nitric  acid  may  be 
added. 

Secondly. — To  impart  a  red  or  copper  colour,  add 
to  the  solution  of  salt  of  copper,  liquid  ammonia, 
and  a  little  acetic  acid.  The  salt  of  copper  may 
be  dissolved  in  the  liquid  ammonia. 

Thirdly. — To  impart  a  brass,  or  antique  bronze 
colour,  either  of  the  three  following  means  may  be 
adopted :  1.  A  solution  of  copper,  with  some  acetic 
acid.  2.  The  means  before  described  for  copper 
colour,  with  a  large  proportion  of  liquid  ammonia. 
3.  Water  acidulated  with  nitric  acid,  by  which 
beautiful  bluish  shades  may  be  produced.  It  must 
be  observed,  however,  that  this  last  process  can  only 


246        •  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

be  properly  employed  on  the  alloys  which  contain  a 
portion  of  copper. 

In  either  of  these  methods  of  colouring,  a  .solution 
of  sal-ammoniac  may  be  substituted  for  the  liquid 
ammonia.  The  quantities  of  each  ingredient  have 
not  been  stated,  as  these  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  alloy,  the  shade  or  hue  desired,  and  the  dura- 
bility required. 

The  blackish-bronze  colour  may  be  superadded  to 
the  red  or  copper  colour,  whereby  a  beautiful  light 
colour  is  produced  on  the  prominent  parts  of  the 
article  bronzed,  or  on  the  parts  from  which  the 
blackish-bronze  colour  may  have  been  rubbed  off. 

These  new  alloys  may  be  used  as  substitutes  for 
various  metals  now  in  general  use,  such  as  iron,  in 
various  parts  of  machinery ;  iron,  lead,  tin,  or  cop- 
per, iin  pipes  and  tubes,  and  bronze,  brass,  and  cop- 
per, in  machinery  and  manufactories,  as  well  w  for 
most  of  the  other  purposes  for  which  more  expensive 
metals  are  employed. 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES          247 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES. 

Aluminium  bronze.  Commercial  pig  copper  al- 
most invariably  contains  more  or  less  dissolved  cu- 
prous oxide  and  occluded  gases.  The  presence  of 
these  impurities  tends  to  decrease  the  ductility  of  the 
metal,  and  their  removal  produces  an  astonishing  in- 
crease  in  the  tensile  strength  and  general  ductility. 

In  this  simple  fact  lies  the  secret  of  the  excellent 
results  obtained  with  the  improved  copper-alloys, 
known  as  aluminium  bronze,  phosphor  bronze,  man- 
ganese bronze,  deoxidized  copper,  tempered  copper, 
etc.* 

The  alloys  of  aluminium  with  copper  show  very 
different  properties,  according  to  the  quantities  of 
aluminium  they  contain.  Alloys  containing  but  little 
copper  cannot  be  used  for  industrial  purposes.  With 
60  to  70  per  cent,  of  aluminium  they  are  very  brittle, 
glass  hard  and  beautifully  crystalline.  With  50  per 
cent,  the  alloy  is  quite  soft,  but  under  30  per  cent, 
of  aluminium  the  hardness  returns. 

The  usual  alloys  are  those  of  1,  2,  5  and  10  per 

*New  Alloys  by  F.  Lynwood  Garrison,  Journal  of  the  Frank- 
lin Institute,  Vol  CXXXI. 


248  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

cent,  of  aluminium,  the  best  results  being  obtained 
with  the  latter.  With  small  bars  cast  in  sand,  per- 
haps the  best  physical  results  obtained  are :  Elastic 
limit,  70,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch;  tensile  strength, 
95,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  with  about  10  per  cent, 
elongation.  With  rolled  bars  much  better  results 
have  been  obtained,  more  particularly  as  regards 
elongation.  The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  aluminium 
bronze  is  about  18,000,000  Ibs. ;  specific  gravity 
when  cast  about  7.56,  when  rolled  about  7.89. 

The  structure  of  aluminium  bronze  is  close  and 
dense.  The  melting  point  varies  somewhat  with  the 
amount  of  aluminium  contained  in  the  bronze,  the 
higher  grades  melting  at  a  somewhat  lower  point  than 
the  lower  grades.  The  color  of  the  10  per  cent, 
bronze  is  bright  golden.  The  metal  keeps  its  polish 
in  the  air,  may  be  easily  engraved,  and  can  be  sol- 
dered with  hard  solder. 

In  making  aluminium  copper  alloys  great  attention 
must  be  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  copper  used. 
Ordinary  commercial  copper  may  contain  small 
amounts  of  antimony,  arsenic  or  iron,  which  the 
aluminium  can  in  no  way  remove,  and  which  affect 
very  injuriously  the  quality  of  the'  bronze.  The 
aluminium  bronzes  seem  to  be  extremely  sensitive  to 
the  above  metals,  particularly  to  iron.  This  neces- 


SOME   MODERN   BRONZES.  L9 

sitates  the  employment  of  the  purest  copper;  electro- 
lytic copper  is  sometimes  used  when  not  too  high- 
priced,  but  Lake  Superior  copper  is  generally  found 
satisfactory  enough.  Even  the  purest  copper  may 
contain  dissolved  cuprous  oxide  or  occluded  gases, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  functions  of  aluminium  to  reduce 
these  oxides  and  gases,  forming  slag,  which  rises  to 
the  surface,  and  leaving  the  bronze  free  from  their 
influences.  If  tin  occurs  in  the  copper  it  lowers  very 
greatly  the  ductility  and  strength  of  the  bronzes,  but 
zinc  is  not  so  harmful. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  as  to  the  purity  of  the 
aluminium  used,  though  its  impurities  are  not  so 
harmful  as  they  would  be  if  occurring  in  similar  per- 
centage in  copper,  since  so  much  more  copper  than 
aluminium  is  used  in  these  alloys.  Yet  the  bronzes 
are  so  sensitive  to  the  presence  of  iron  that  an 
aluminium  with  as  small  a  percentage  of  this  metal 
as  possible  should  be  used.  The  silicon  in  com- 
mercial aluminium  is  not  so  harmful  as  the  iron,  but 
it  does  harden  the  bronze  considerably  and  increases 
its  tensile  strength.  The  purest  aluminium  alloyed 
with  the  purest  copper  always  produces  the  highest 
quality  of  bronze. 

For  preparing  the  bronzes  the  following  directions 
arc  given :  Melt  the  copper  in  a  plumbago  crucible 


250  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER 

and  heat  it  somewhat  hotter  than  its  melting  point. 
When  quite  fluid  and  the  surface  clean,  sticks  of 
aluminium  of  a  suitable  size  are  taken  in  tongs  and 
pushed  down  under  the  surface,  thus  protecting  the 
aluminium  from  oxidation.  The  first  effect  is  nec- 
essarily to  chill  the  copper  more  or  less  in  contact 
with  the  aluminium,  hut  if  the  copper  was  at  a  good 
neat  to  start  with,  the  chilled  part  is  speedily  dis- 
solved and  the  aluminium  attacked.  The  chemical 
action  of  the  aluminium  is  then  shown  by  a  rise  of 
temperature  which  may  even  reach  a  white  heat 
Considerable  commotion  may  take  place  at  first,  but 
this  gradually  subsides.  When  the  required  alum- 
inium has  been  introduced,  the  bronze  is  let  stand 
for  a  few  minutes  and  then  well  stirred,  taking  care 
not  to  rub  or  scrape  the  sides  of  the  crucible.  By 
the  stirring,  the  slag,  which  commences  to  rise  even 
during  the  alloying,  is  brought  almost  entirely  to  the 
surface.  The  crucible  is  then  taken  out  of  the 
furnace,  the  slag  removed  from  the  surface  with  a 
skimmer,  the  metal  again  stirred  to  bring  up  what 
little  slag  may  still  remain  in  it,  and  is  then  ready 
for  casting.  It  is  very  injurious  to  leave  it  longer 
in  the  fire  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  No^flux  is 
required,  the  bronze  needing  only  to  be  covered 
with  charcoal  powder.  The  particular  point  to  be 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES.          251 

attended  to  in  melting  these  bronzes  is  to  handle  as 
quickly  as  possible  when  once  melted. 

The  manufacture  of  aluminium-bronzes  on  a  large 
scale,  as  carried  on  by  the  Cowles  Electric  Smelting 
and  Aluminium  Company,  is  as  follows  :  The  furnace 
used  consists  of  a  brick  box  1  foot  wide,  5  feet  long 
and  15  inches  deep.  From  opposite  ends  enter  two 
immense  electrodes,  that  are  really  electric-light 
carbons,  3  inches  in  diameter  and  30  inches  long. 
These  are  partly  coritained  in  pipes  that,  in  turn, 
pass  through  stuffing  boxes  in  the  ends,  to  exclude 
the  air  and,  at  the  same  time,  admit  of  adjusting  the 
electrodes. 

To  protect  the  walls  of  the  furnace  from  the  in- 
tense heat,  it  is  lined  with  finely-powdered  charcoal, 
which,  having  been  first  washed  in  a  solution  of 
lime-water,  retains  its  non-conductivity  even  after  the 
particles  have  been  partially  converted  into  graphite 
by  heat. 

The  bottom  of  the  furnace  is  now  lined  to  a  depth 
of  two  or  three  inches  with  this  fine,  prepared  char- 
coal, and  by  means  of  a  sheet-iron  gauge,  the  walls 
of  the  furnace  are  covered  with  charcoal  to  the 
thickness  of  two  inches. 

The  charge,  consisting  of  about  25  Ibs.  of  corun- 
dun,  12  Ibs.  charcoal  and  carbon,  and  50  Ibs.  of 


252  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

granulated  copper,  is  placed  about  the  electrodes  to 
within  a  foot  of  each  end  of  the  furnace.  A  layer 
of  coarsely-broken  charcoal  is  now  spread  over  the 
eharcre,  and  the  sheet-iron  gauge  withdrawn.  The 
coarse  charcoal  on  top  allows  the  escape  of  carbonic 
oxide  gas  formed  during  the  process.  An  iron 
cover,  lined  with  fire-brick,  is  luted  on  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  air. 

The  charge  is  now  prepared,  and  the  furnace 
ready  to  be  connected  with  a  large  Brush  dynamo, 
capable  of  producing  ninety  horse-power  of  electric 
energy.  In  the  circuit  between  the  dynamo  and 
furnace  is  an  ammeter,  designed  to  register  from  50 
to  20,000  amperes  of  current,  which  is  controlled  by 
a  large  resistance -box,  as  the  ends  of  the  electrodes 
may  at  first  be  too  close  together  to  make  it  safe  to 
start  the  dynamo.  By  watching  the  ammeter  and 
moving  the  electrodes,  the  resistance-box  can  be 
taken  gradually  out  of  circuit  without  producing  a 
"short  circuit"  at  the  beginning  of  the  operation. 
In  about  ten  minutes,  after  the  copper  about  the 
electrodes  has  become  melted,  the  latter  are  slowly 
moved  apart  until  the  current  becomes  steady.  It 
is  now  increased  to  about  1300  amperes  and  fifty 
volts.  Carbonic  oxide  begins  to  escape  from  the 
orifices  made  in  the  top,  and  burns  in  two  white 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES.          253 

plumes  of  flame.  By  regulating  the  distance  be- 
tween the  electrodes,  the  current,  is  kept  constant  for 
about  5  hours,  and  all  parts  of  the  charge  are 
brought  into  the  reducing  zone. 

When  the  operation  is  completed,  a  resistance  is 
placed  in  the  box,  arid  the  current  is  switched  into 
another  furnace  charged  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
product  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  containing  15  to  30 
per  cent,  of  aluminium,  and  having  a  beautiful  silver 
color  when  broken.  The  copper  performs  no  part  in 
the  reduction,  but  is  employed  to  absorb  the  alumin- 
ium, which  would  otherwise  be  converted  into  a 
carbide. 

This  alloy  is  now  melted  in  an  ordinary  crucible 
furnace  and  run  into  ingots,  which,  after  being  ana- 
lyzed, are  re-melted,  and  sufficient  copper  added  to 
produce  the  standard  bronzes. 

Two  runs  from  the  furnace  described  will  produce 
about  100  pounds,  containing  about  15  per  cent,  of 
aluminium. 

When  a  10  per  cent,  aluminium  bronze  is  made  by 
simple  mixing  of  ingredients,  it  is  brittle,  and  does 
not  acquire  its  best  qualities  until  having  been  cast 
several  times.  After  three  or  four  meltings  it 
reaches  a  maximum,  at  which  point  it  may  be  melted 
several  times  without  sensible  change.  As  it  cools 


254  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

rapidly,  large  castings  require  some  care  to  prevent 
cracking,  so  numerous  runners  and  a  large  feeding- 
head  should  be  employed.  The  10  per  cent,  bronze 
fuses  at  about  the  temperature  of  brass  containing 
33  per  cent,  zinc,  and  the  5  per  cent,  melts  at  s 
somewhat  higher  temperature.  The  former  should 
be  poured  as  cool  as  possible  to  produce  sharp  cast- 
ings, and  should  be  kept  covered  with  charcoal  up  to 
the  moment  of  pouring.  Considerable  care  must  be 
taken  in  the  preparation  of  "risers,"  so  that  the 
metal  will  free  itself  of  impurities.  The  metal  can 
conveniently  be  freed  from  slag  or  other  impurity 
when  pouring  into  the  mould  by  the  following 
method:  A  supplementary  pot  or  crucible,  with  a 
hole  in  the  bottom,  is  secured  over  the  pouring-gate 
of  the  mould.  This  hole  is  first  plugged  up  by  a 
carbon  or  iron  rod  heated  to  redness,  and  the  pot  is 
filled  with  the  melted  metal  before  the  plug  is  with- 
drawn. This  allows  the  oxide  and  slag  to  rise  to  the 
surface,  and  admits  only  pure  metal  to  the  mould. 
It  also  prevents  the  oxidation  that  a  stream  of  metal 
would  suffer  in  pouring  through  the  air  to  the  <(  pour- 
ing gate,"  as  is  often  practiced. 

The  shrinkage  of  10  per  cent,  aluminium  bronze 
in  casting  is  aiSout  50  per  cent,  more  than  ordinary 
brass. 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES.          255 

Aluminium  bronze  forges  similar  to  the  best 
Swedish  iron,  but  at  a  much  lower  temperature.  It 
works  best  at  a  cherry  red ;  if  this  is  much  exceeded, 
the  metal  becomes  "  hot  short,"  and  is  easily  crushed. 
The  temperature  for  rolling  is  a  bright  red  heat,  and 
it  is  a  curious  fact  that,  if  the  metal  were  forged  at 
the  temperature  it  is  rolled,  it  would  be  smashed  to 
pieces.  If  the  temperature  in  the  ordinary  muffle  in 
which  it  is  heated  be  allowed  to  rise  too  high,  the 
bronze  will  frequently  fall  apart  by  its  own  weight. 
When  in  the  rolls  it  acts  very  much  like  yellow 
Muntz  metal.  As  it  losas  its  heat  much  more  rapidly 
than  copper  or  iron,  it  has  to  be  annealed  frequently 
between  rollings. 

An  incident  that  occurred  in  the  French  postage 
stamp  manufactory,  Paris,  may  here  be  cited  as 
illustrating  some  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  alu- 
minium bronze.  Great  trouble  was  experienced  to 
procure  a  suitable  die-plate  to  place  beneath  the 
needles  of  a  machine  used  for  perforating  sheets  of 
postage  stamps.  At  every  blow,  the  needles  passed 
through  the  holes  in  the  die-plate,  and  as  there  were 
300  needles  making  rapid  strokes,  about  180,000,000 
holes  were  made  per  day.  With  this  usage  brass- 
plates  wore  out  in  a  day,  and  even  steel-plates  were 
speedily  destroyed.  A  plate  of  aluminium-bronze 
being  substituted,  lasted  for  months  without  renewal. 


256  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

Delta  metal.  This  metal  was  patented,  in  1882. 
by  Alexander  Dick,  but  it  has  exactly  the  same  com- 
position as  sterro-metal,  which  was  introduced  some 
years  ago  by  Baron  Rosthorn,  of  Vienna.  It  is 
composed  of  about  60  parts  of  copper,  34  to  44  of 
zinc,  2  to  4  of  iron,  and  1  to  2  of  tin. 

The  peculiarity  of  this  and  similar  alloys  is  the 
content  of  iron,  which  appears  to  have  the  property 
of  increasing  the  strength  to  an  unusual  degree.  In 
making  delta  metal  the  iron  is  previously  alloyed 
with  zinc  in  known  and  definite  proportions.  When 
ordinary  wrought-iron  is  introduced  into  melted  zinc, 
the  latter  readily  dissolves  or  absorbs  the  former,  and 
will  take  it  up  to  the  extent  of  about  5  per  cent,  or 
more.  By  adding  the  zinc-iron  alloy  thus  obtained 
to  the  requisite  amount  of  copper,  it  is  possible  to 
introduce  any  definite  quantity  of  iron  up  to  5  per 
cent,  into  the  copper  alloy.  Hiorns  states  that  the 
inventor  uses  a  small  amount  of  phosphorus  in  com- 
bination with  the  copper  to  avoid  the  oxidation  when 
the  alloy  is  remelted.  In  some  cases  he  uses  tin, 
manganese  and  lead  to  impart  special  properties. 
The  inventor  claims  that  by  this  process  the  iron  is 
chemically  combined  in  the  brass  and  bronze. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  delta  metal  are  great 
strength  and  toughness.  It  produces  sound  castings 


SOME   MODERN    BRONZES. 


2.57 


of  close  grain.  It  can  be  rolled  and  forged  hot,  and 
can  stand  a  certain  amount  of  drawing  and  hammer- 
ing when  cold.  It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  when 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  tarnishes  less  than  brass, 

When  cast  in  sand,  delta  metal  has  a  tensile 
strength  of  about  45,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  and 
about  10  per  cent,  elongation ;  when  rolled,  a  tensile 
strength  of  60,000  to  75,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
and  elongation  of  from  9  to  17  per  cent,  on  bars 
1.128  inch  in  diameter  and  1  inch  area. 

Delta  metal  can  be  forged,  stamped  and  rolled  hot. 
It  must  be  forged  at  a  dark  cherry -red  heat,  and  care 
taken  to  avoid  striking  when  at  a  black  heat. 

Delta  metal  as  manufactured  by  the  "  Deutsche 
Delta-Metall  Gesellschaft "  is  composed  as  follows: 


Constituents. 

Cast 
Per  cent. 

Wrought 
Per  cent. 

Rolled 
Per  cent. 

Hot 
punched 
Per  cent. 

Cooper   . 

55  94 

55  80 

55  82 

54  22 

Lead   

0  72 

1  82 

0  76 

1  10 

0  87 

1  28 

0  86 

0  99 

Manganese     .... 
Zinc    .    .    . 

0.81 
41  61 

0.96 
40  07 

1.38 

41  41 

1.09 
42  25 

Nickel     

Trace 

Trace 

0  06 

0  16 

Phosphorus    .    . 

0.013 

0.011 

Trace 

0.02 

99.963 

99.941 

100.29 

99.83 

Deoxidized  bronze.     This  alloy  is  manufactured 
by  the  Deoxidized  Metal   Company  of  Bridgeport, 
IT 


258  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

Conn.  It  resembles  phosphor-bronze  somewhat  in 
composition,  and  also  delta  metal,  in  containing  zinc 
and  iron.  The  following  analysis  by  Mr.  Jas.  S. 
de  Benneville  gives  its  average  composition : 

Copper 82.67 

Tin 12.40 

Zinc     .    .    . 3.23 

Lead 2.14 

Iron 0.10 

Silver 0.07 

Phosphorus 0.005 


100.615 

It  seems  probable  that  some  deoxidizing  flux  con- 
taining phosphorus,  similar  to  that  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  phosphor-bronze  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  this  alloy.  Deoxidized  bronze  is  largely 
used  for  wood-pulp  digesters,  as  it  is  found  to  resist 
the  action  of  sodium  hyposulphite  and  sulphurous 
acid  remarkably  well. 

Deoxidized  bronze  wire  has  a  tensile  strength  in 
the  neighborhood  of  150,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 
The  deoxidized  copper  wire  made  by  the  Deoxidized 
Bronze  Company  has  a  tensile  strength  of  70,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  and  the  deoxidized  copper 
sheets,  a  tensile  strength  of  from  30,000  to  50,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZE J.          259 

Manganese  bronze.  This  alloy  has  been  used  very 
extensively  for  casting  propeller  blades,  both  in  this 
country  and  abroad.  When  cast  in  sand  it  has  an 
average  elastic  limit  of  30,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch, 
tensile  strength  about  60,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
with  an  elongation  of  8  to  10  per  cent.  When 
rolled  the  elastic  limit  is  about  80,000  Ibs.  per 
square  inch,  tensile  strength  95,000  to  106,000  Ibs. 
per  square  inch,  and  an  elongation  of  12  to  15  per 
cent' 

For  several  years  past  manganese  bronze  appears 
to  have  been  made  in  large  quantities  by  Mr.  P.  M. 
Parsons  of  the  Manganese  Bronze  Company,  Dept- 
ford,  England,  the  manganese  being  added  in  the 
form  of  ferro-mariganese.  A  portion  of  the  man- 
ganese in  the  alloy  thus  added  is  utilized  in  deoxi- 
dation,  while  the  remainder,  together  with  the  iron, 
becomes  permanently  combined  with  the  copper.  The 
manganese  once  alloyed  with  the  copper  is  not 
driven  off  by  remelting,  but  usually  the  quality  of 
the  bronze  is  improved  by  remelting. 

Ferro-manganese  is  composed  of  manganese,  75 
parts,  and  iron,  75. 

An  alloy  of  copper  and  manganese,  the  so-called 
cupro-manganese,  consisting  of  copper,  70.5  parts; 
manganese,  25,  and  coal,  0.5,  is  recommended  as  an 


260  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDEH 

addition  to  bronze.  Of  this  composition,  an  addition 
of  2§  per  cent,  suffices  for  most  cases.  The  process 
is  very  simple.  After  melting  the  bronze-masses, 
the  metal-bath  is  covered  with  pulverized  charcoal, 
and  the  pieces  of  cupro-manganese,  previously 
weighed  and  reduced  to  small  pieces,  are  allowed 
slowly  to  slide  into  the  crucible.  Fusion  takes  place 
instantaneously,  but  the  crucible  is  for  a  few  mo- 
ments to  be  replaced  upon  the  fire,  in  order  to  some- 
what increase  the  temperature  reduced  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  cold  pieces  of  metal.  In  pouring  out 
proceed  in  the  ordinary  manner.  To  enclose  the 
oxide  of  manganese  formed  by  this  process,  add  to 
the  charcoal,  with  which  the  metal-bath  is  covered, 
about  one-half  its  quantity  of  pure  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash. 

Alloys  prepared  with  the  assistance  of  cupro- 
manganese,  which  are  especially  valuable  for  tech- 
nical purposes,  have  the  following  composition: 

PARTS. 


I. 
...  11 

II. 

60 

III. 
C5 

IV. 

60 

.  .  .-25 

25 

20 

20 

Zinc  

15 

5 

Tin  

10 

Nickel 



10 

10 

Phosphor-bronze.     In  1868  Montefiore  and  Kiin- 


MODERN    BRONZES. 


261 


zel,  of  Li&ge,  Belgium,  observed  that  the  tin  in 
bronze  progressively  decreases  by  oxidation  during 
smelting,  the  tin  oxide  going  partly  into  the  slag 
and  being  partly  dissolved  in  the  melted  metal,  so 
that  bronze  originally  composed  of  10.10  per  cent, 
tin  and  89.90  copper,  after  the  fourth  melting  con- 
tained only  8.52  tin  and  91.48  copper.  It  was 
found  that  poling  (stirring  up  the  metal  with  a  stick 
of  green  wood)  eliminated  the  oxide  combined  with 
copper,  but  had  no  effect  on  the  tin-oxide.  Klinzel 
then  tried  the  introduction  of  a  little  phosphorus,  or 
"  phosphoret  of  tin  or  copper,"  into  the  mass,  with 
the  desired  result.  Bars  cast  from  the  same  crucible 
of  metal  under  the  three  conditions  named  gave  the 
following  results : 


Condition  of  the  mass  of  metal. 

Resistance. 

Lengthen- 
ing until 
Rupture. 

Per  cent. 

Absolute 
Ib.  per 
square 
iuch. 

Elastic 
Ib.  per 
square 
inch. 

Old  bronze     
poled  

22.982 
24.922 

33.916 

17.020 
17.709 

19.300 

2.0 
2.8 

6.8 

"           deoridized    with  ") 
phosphorus.       J 

Other  experiments  in  phosphorizing  alloys  of  cop- 
per, nickel,  manganese  and  iron  were  not  satisfac- 
tory, nor  was  that  of  using  sodium  instead  of  phos- 
phorus as  a  deoxidizer.  The  action  of  phosphorus 


262 


BRASS    AND    tRON    FOUNDER. 


in  bronze  is  (1)  to  eliminate  the  oxides,  and  (2)  to 
make  the  tin  capable  of  assuming  crystalline  struc- 
ture, thus  increasing  the  homogeneity  of  the  alloy, 
and  thereby  its  elasticity  and  absolute  resistance. 
Among  other  properties,  phosphor-bronze  emits 
sparks  under  friction  less  readily  than  gun  metal  or 
copper.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  friction  bear- 
ings ;  is  easily  rolled  into  sheets,  and  is  very  tough 
in  that  form.  In  sea-water  it  oxidizes  at  about  one- 
third  the  rate  of  copper. 

The  following  are  Kirkaldy's  figures  for  tenacity 
and  ductility  of  phosphor-bronze  wire  No.  16,  Bir- 
mingham gauge : 

Phosphor-bronze  Wire,  No.  16. 


Mater- 
ials. 

Load  at  fracture. 

Elonga 
tion. 
Length 
5  inches 

No.  of  twists 
before  break- 
ing. 

Unannealed. 

Annealed. 

Per  sq. 
mm. 

Per  sq. 
inch. 

Per  sq, 
mm. 

Per  sq. 
inch. 

Per 

cent. 

Unan- 
nealed 

An- 
nealed 

Phos-    r 

72.3  kilos 

46    tons 

34.7  kilos 

22  tons 

37.5 

6.7 

80 

bronze 

85.1     " 

54      " 

33.6 

21.3  •' 

34.1 

22.3 

52 

ofsev-J 

85.2    " 

54.1    " 

37.5 

23.8  " 

42.4 

13.0 

124 

eral    1 

97.7    " 

62.1    " 

42.8 

27.2  " 

44.9 

17.3 

53 

pro- 
por- 

112.2   " 

71.2  " 

41.7 

26.5  " 

46.6 

17.3 

66 

tions.   I 

106.3    " 

61.6  " 

45.4 

28.9  « 

42.8 

15.0 

•      | 

SOME   MODERN   BRONZES. 
Cast  Phosphor-bronze, 


263 


Reduction 
of  section. 

Elastic  limit. 

Ultimate  resistance. 

Per  cent. 

Per  sq,  mm. 

Per  sq.  inch. 

Per  sq.  mm. 

Per  sq.  inch. 

8.4 
i.5 
33.4 

16.65  kilos 
lt.38     " 
11.6       " 

10.6    tons 
11.05     " 
7.2       " 

3*7.0  kilos 
32.5     " 
31.3     " 

23.5  tons 
20.6     « 
19.9     " 

The  content  of  phosphorus  is  imparted  to  the 
bronze  by  an  addition  of  copper  phosphide  or  phos- 
phide of  tin,  both  these  phosphides  being  sometimes 
used  at  the  same  time.  They  must  be  especially 
prepared,  the  best  process  being  briefly  as  follows: 

Copper-phosphide.  A  mixture  of  bone  ash,  silica, 
and  carbon  is  placed  in  a  crucible,  and  upon  it  a 
layer  of  granulated  copper,  which  is  in  turn  covered 
with  the  above  mixture.  The  lid  of  the  crucible  is 
luted  on.  To  make  the  mixture  melt  more  readily, 
some  carbonate  of  soda  and  glass  may  be  added,  or 
a  mixture  of  pulverized  milk  glass  with  charcoal  and 
powdered  coke  is  used  for  lining  and  covering  it. 
Take  for  example  14  parts  of  silica,  18  of  bone  ash, 
and  4  of  powdered  carbon.  This  is  mixed  with  4 
parts  of  soda  and  4  of  powdered  glass,  stirred  up 
with  a  little  gum  water,  and  used  to  line  the  cruci- 
ble. When  this  is  dry  the  copper  is  put  in  and 
covered  with  the  same  mass,  and  the  whole  is  melted 


264  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

at  a  bright-red  heat.  The  copper  obtained  fk  ws 
well,  and  has  a  reddish-gray  color.  It  contains  0.50 
to  0.51  per  cent,  of  phosphorus. 

According  to  another  method  copper-phosphide  is 
prepared  by  adding  phosphorus  to  copper  sulphide 
solution  and  boiling,  adding  sulphur  as  the  sulphide 
is  precipitated.  The  precipitate  is  carefully  dried, 
melted  and  cast  into  ingots.  When  of  good  quality 
and  in  proper  condition,  it  is  quite  black. 

Phosphide  of  tin  is  prepared  as  follows :  Place  a 
bar  of  zinc  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  chloride  of  tin, 
collect  the  sponge-like  tin  separated,  and  bring  it 
moist  into  a  crucible  upon  the  bottom  of  which  sticks 
of  phosphorus  have  been  placed.  Press  the  tin 
tightly  into  the  crucible  and  expose  it  to  a  gentle 
heat.  Continue  the  heating  until  flames  of  burning 
phosphorus  are  no  longer  observed  on  the  crucible, 
After  the  operation  is  finished  a  coarsely-crystalline 
mass  of  a  tin-white  color,  consisting  of  pure  phosphide 
of  tin,  is  found  upon  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 

Phosphor-bronze  is  prepared  by  melting  the  alloy 
to  be  converted  into  it  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
adding  small  pieces  of  copper  phosphide  and  phos- 
phide of  tin. 

The  phosphorus  may  also  be  introduced  into  the 
bronze  as  follows :  Stick  a  bar  of  the  phosphorus  int< 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES.          265 

a  tube  of  pinchbeck,  one  end  of  which  is  hammered 
together  and  closed  tightly.  After  the  phosphorus  is 
put  in  the  other  end  is  also  closed.  When  the  metal, 
which  contains  82  parts  of  copper  to  5  of  zinc  and  1 
of  tin,  is  melted,  the  tube  charged  with  phosphorus 
is  pushed  down  in  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible  by 
means  of  bent  tongs.  The  stick  of  phosphorus  must 
be  kept  under  water  until  it  is  to  be  introduced  into 
the  pinchbeck  tube,  when  it  must  be  carefully  dried, 
as  the  presence  of  any  moisture  would  be  sure  to 
cause  the  metal  to  spurt  or  fly  about. 

Another  way  of  introducing  the  phosphorus  is  as 
follows :  Get  from  a  gas-fitter  about  2  feet  of  iron 
pipe,  with  a  bore  a  little  larger  than  the  sticks  of 
phosphorus;  make  an  iron  plug  to  fit  the  bore,  and 
then  drive  it  down  one  end  of  the  pipe  until  the  space 
will  hold  the  quantity  of  phosphorus  you  wish  to  mix 
in  the  metal.  Make  a  plug  of  tin,  about  J  inch  thick, 
to  fit  in  the  bore.  Now  introduce  the  phosphorus  in 
the  space  formed  by  the  iron  plug,  and  just  tap  the 
tin  plug  into  the  end  of  the  pipe  with  a  hammer. 
Stir  the  pipe  about  in  the  melted  metal ;  the  tin  plug 
soon  melts,  letting  out  the  phosphorus  in  the  bronze 
baths. 

According  to  Thurston,  five  sorts  of  phosphor- 
bronze  are  considered  U  answer  all  requirements: 


26b  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

0.  Ordinary  phosphor-bronze  of  2  per  cent,  ol 
phosphorus. 

1.  Good  phosphor-bronze  of  2J  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phorus. 

These  two  numbers  are  in  all  cases  superior  to 
ordinary  bronze  and  steel. 

2.  Superior   phosphor-bronze  of  3  per   cent,  of 
phosphorus. 

3.  Extra  phosphor-bronze  of  3J  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phorus. 

4.  Maximum  phosphor-bronze  of  4  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus. 

These  three,  according  to  Delalot,  are  superior  to 
any  other  bronzes.  Above  No.  4  phosphor-bronze  is 
useless,  below  No.  0  it  is  inferior  to  common  bronze 
and  steel.  Nos.  3  and  4  are  comparatively  unoxi- 
dizable. 

Platinum -bronze.  This  bronze,  which  has  been 
patented  in  various  countries  by  Helonis,  of  Paris,  is 
described  as  follows :  By  alloying  nickel  with  a  small 
quantity  of  platinum  it  loses  its  oxidability  and  is 
not  Attacked  by  acetic  acid.  To  prepare  the  alloy 
the  nickel  is  melted,  without  flux,  with  the  platinum 
and  a  certain  quantity  of  tin.  The  following  alloys 
are  at  present  used : 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES.          267 

Nickel.  Platinum.  Tin.  Silver. 

For  knives,  forks  and  spoons    .100             1  10  — 

«    bells 100             1  20  2 

"    fancy  articles  ....    .    .  100             0.5  15  — 

"    field  glasses 100           20  20 

A  non-oxidizable  alloy  is  as  follows:  Nickel  60 
parts,  platinum  5  to  10,  brass  120. 

Silicon  bronze.  This  alloy  appears  to  have  been 
invented,  about  1881,  by  M.  Weiller  of  Angouleme. 
In  experimenting  with  phosphor-bronze  wire  for  tele- 
graphic and  telephonic  use,  he  found  its  conductivity 
was  insufficient  for  telegraphic  purposes,  so  he  de- 
vised the  alloy  now  called  silicon  bronze. 

The  silicon-copper  compound,  from  which  the  sili- 
con bronze  is  produced,  is  made  by  melting,  in  a 
graphitic  crucible,  a  certain  amount  of  copper  with  a 
mixture  of  fluor-silicate  of  potassium,  glass,  chloride 
of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda  and  chloride  of  calcium. 
It  is  claimed  the  silicon  and  sodium  in  this  mixture 
absorb  all  the  oxides  present  in  the  mass. 

The  action  of  the  silicon  on  the  copper  is  similar 
to  that  of  phosphorus.  It  acts  as  deoxidizer  and,  the 
silica  formed  being  an  acid,  is  a  valuable  flux  for 
any  metallic  oxides  remaining  unreduced. 

Silicon  bronze  is  chiefly  used  for  telegraph  and 
telephone  wires,  wire  made  from  it  having  the  same 
resistance  to  rupture  as  phosphor-bronze  wire,  but 


268  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

with  a  mu3h  higher  degree  of  electric  conductivity. 
It  also  seems  that,  although  wires  made  from  this 
alloy  are  very  much  lighter  than  ordinary  wires, 
they  are  of  equal  strength. 

According  to  E.  Van  der  Ven,  phosphor-bronze 
has  about  30  per  cent.,,  silicon  bronze,  70  per  cent., 
and  steel  10J  per  cent,  of  the  electrical  conductivity 
of  copper. 

The  following  shows  the  composition  of  silicon 
bronze  used  for  wires  : 


Telephone  Wire  A. 

Telegraph  Wire  A. 

Copper 
Tin  .    . 

.    .    .  99.94  per  cent. 
0  03         " 

Copper 
Tin 

.    .    .  97.12  per  cent. 
1  14         " 

Silicon 

.    .    .     0.02          '• 

Silicon 

.    .    .    0.05         " 

Iron     . 

.    .    .  trace 

Iron    . 

.    .    .  trace 

Zinc     . 

.    .    .  —  • 

Zinc     . 

.    .    .    1.62         " 

99.99  per  cent. 

99.93  per  cent. 

Steel-bronze.  The  ordnance-bronze  known  under 
this  name  is  prepared  in  the  Austrian  arsenals,  the 
method  of  melting  and  subsequent  treatment  in  cast- 
ing being  kept  secret.  It  is  only  known  that  the 
bronze  contains  8  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  that  the  cast- 
ing is  effected  in  cold  iron  moulds.  The  peculiarity 
of  the  process  of  manufacturing  ordnance  from  steel- 
bronze  (also  called  Uchatius  bronze  after  its  in 
mentor)  consists  in  the  piece,  after  being  finished  to 
a  certain  extent,  being  subjected  to  a  peculiar  median 


SOME  MODERN  BRONZES.          269 

ical  treatment.  The  calibre  of  the  piece  is  made 
smaller  than  it  is  finally  to  be,  and  is  then  gradually 
enlarged  to  the  required  diameter  by  steel-cylinders 
with  conical  points  being  forced  through  the  cavity 
with  the  assistance  of  hydraulic  presses.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  peculiar  treatment  the  cavity  is,  so  to 
say,  forged  or  rolled,  the  bronze  acquiring  the  great- 
est power  of  resistance  in  those  places  which  in  fir- 
ing are  subjected  to  the  greatest  pressure. 

Tobin  bronze.  This  alloy  is  practically  a  sterro 
or  delta  metal  with  the  addition  of  a  small  amount 
of  lead,  which  tends  to  render  copper  softer  and 
more  ductile.  According  to  the  inventor's  claims, 
the  bronze  can  be  forged  and  stamped  at  a  red  heat 
as  readily  as  steel.  Bolts  and  nuts  can  be  forged 
from  it  by  hand,  and  machinery  when  cold  drawn. 
Its  increased  density  and  high  elastic  limit,  and  the 
facility  with  which  it  can  be  upset  while  hot  make  it 
well  adapted  for  special  purposes.  The  bronze 
should  be  forged  only  at  a  cherry-red  heat  and  never 
be  worked  at  a  black  heat.  Analyses  by  Dr.  Chas. 

B.  Dudley: 

Pig  Metal.        Test  Bar  (Rolled). 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Copper 59.00  61.20 

Zinc 38.40  3T.14 

Tin 2.16  0.90 

Iron 0.11  0.18 

Lead    .                            .0.31  0.35 


270  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


ON  ZINC  AS  A  PROTECTIVE  COVERING  FOR  IRON  ;  ANI 
THE  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  PROCESS  OF  ELECTRO- 
DEPOSITION  FOR  THAT  PURPOSE.  BY  F.  PELLATT, 
ESQ. 

Read  at  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  London. 

THE  object  of  this  paper  is  to  direct  attention  to 
the  properties  of  zinc  as  a  protecting  coating  to 
iron;  to  describe  the  processes  already  employed 
for  this  purpose ;  the  reason  of  their  failure ;  and 
the  peculiar  adaptation  of  the  electro-deposition  of 
the  metal  for  the  end  desired. 

It  would  be  a  needless  waste  of  time  to  say  any- 
thing regarding  the  superior  value  of  iron  as  a  ma- 
terial ;  but  a  few  remarks  respecting  its  chemical 
influences  may  not  be  misplaced. 

The  cause  of  iron  becoming  corroded  is  its  supenoi 
affinity  for  oxygen.  If  the  iron  and  water  are  both 
pure,  this  is  not,  indeed,  found  to  be  the  case :  but 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  neither  of  these  exist 
in  a  state  of  purity.  The  iron,  therefore,  owing  to 
its  own  impurity,  and  that  of  the  water,  is  subject 


ON   COVERING    IRON    WITH    ZINC.  271 

10  a  powerful  destructive  influence,  which  is  best 
known  to  those  most  experienced  in  its  use ;  and 
there  is  no  circumstance  in  which  we  can  place  iron 
to  be  free  from  the  action  of  water,  it  being  present 
in  the  air  and  earth.  So  powerfully  is  this  metal 
affected  in  the  earth,  or  in  contact  with  some  salts, 
that  it  loses  all  its  essential  properties,  and  is 
converted  into  a  substance  so  soft  that  it  may  be 
scratched  by  a  finger  nail.  These  facts  render  it  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  some  means  be  obtained 
for  its  protection,  which,  at  the  same  time,  will  not 
interfere  with  the  natural  properties  of  the  iron. 
Th^  substances  hitherto  used  for  protecting  iron  are 
tin  and  paint.  These,  as  lasting  coatings,  are  not 
effective.  The  tin  being  electrically  negative  to  the 
iron,  renders  it  a  means  of  destruction,  instead  of 
protection,  when  any  part  of  the  iron  is  exposed. 
By  the  laws  of  electricity,  when  metals  are  in  con- 
tact, the  negative  metal  is  protected  at  the  expense 
of  the  positive. 

Circumstances,  such  as  different  chemical  men- 
strua, may  alter  the  relative  electrical  states  of 
metals.  But  under  all  ordinary  circumstances  this 
rule  holds  good ;  and  zinc  being  the  positive  metal, 
it  becomes,  in  consequence,  a  protector  to  the  nega- 
tive metal,  :ron.  This  electrical  property  of  zinc  in 


272  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

connexion  with  iron  and  other  metals,  has  induced 
those  to  whom  it  was  known,  to  recommend  it  as  a 
•joating.  The  difficulty  hitherto  has  been  the  oh- 
taining  of  zinc  pure,  and  the  application  of  it  with- 
out injuring  the  texture  of  the  iron. 

From  the  known  qualities  of  zinc,  it  has  been 
lately  much  employed  for  various  purposes,  but  has 
entirely  disappointed  the  expectations  formed  from 
its  properties.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  no  zinc 
of  commerce  is  pure,  and  that  the  impurities 
existing  are  destructive  to  it,  from  the  electrical 
law  we  have  alluded  to.  The  impurities  existing, 
more  or  less,  in  all  zinc,  are  lead,  iron,  arsenic,  and 
one  or  two  other  metals,  all  of  which  are  electrically 
negative  to  zinc ;  the  consequence  being  that  every 
atom  of  impurity,  in  connexion  with  the  zinc,  forms 
a  galvanic  battery  of  many  thousands,  or  rather 
millions,  of  pairs  of  plates,  the  impurities  being  pro- 
tected, and  the  zinc  destroyed. 

It  has  no  doubt  surprised  many  who  have  made 
use  of  zinc,  to  find  it  in  a  few  weeks  or  months, 
according  to  circumstances,  perforated  with  small 
holes,  and  completely  destroyed.  We  say  according 
to  circumstances,  because  the  ordinary  time  zinc 
lasts  depends  not  only  on  the  amount  of  impurities 
ontained  in  it,  but  also  on  the  exciting  fluid  to 


ON   COVERING   IRON    WITH   ZINC.  273 

ivhich  it  is  subjected.  Exposed  to  the  action  of 
water  from  the  atmosphere,  the  destructive  influence 
operates  comparatively  slowly;  but  with  more  ex- 
citing fluids  very  rapidly. 

Thus,  a  roof  erected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a 
vinegar  distillery,  was  completely  destroyed  in  six 
weeks;  and  vessels  used  for  dairy  purposes  have 
lasted  but  a  very  short  time,  owing  to  the  presence 
of  acids — these  causing  a  rapid  galvanic  action  be- 
tween the  zinc  and  its  imparities.  It  is  then  quite 
evident  that  impure  zinc,  being  itself  valueless,  can- 
not aftbrd  protection  to  any  other  metal.  Now,  the 
only  process  yet  in  use  for  the  purpose  of  coating  iron 
with  zinc,  is  that  of  immersing  the  iron  in  meited  zinc. 
This  we  conceive  open  to  many  objections.  The  iron 
by  this  process  being  raised  to  a  temperature  of  at 
least  800°,  causes  it  to  combine  with  the  zinc,  form- 
ing an  alloy  on  the  surface,  which  changes  its  state, 
and  becomes  brittle.  But  upon  this  subject,  we 
shall  refer  to  the  report  made  by  M.  Dumas  to  the 
French  Academy.  He  says — 

"  The  zincing  of  iron,  made  by  steeping  iron  in  a 
bath  of  melted  zinc,  has  many  inconveniences ;  be- 
sides, the  iron  combining  with  the  zinc,  constitutes 
a  very  brittle,  superficial  alloy.  The  iron  loses  its 

tenacity — a   circumstance  which  is  not   perceived, 
18 


274  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

however,  except  in  trying  to  zinc  fine  iron  wire,  or 
very  thin  plate.  Besides,  the  surface,  being  covered 
with  a  layer  of  not  very  fusible  metal,  is  always  iil- 
formed.  Thus,  fine  iron  wire  cannot  be  zinced  by 
this  process,  as  it  becomes  fragile  and  deformed; 
bullets  cannot  be  zinced,  as  they  become  misshapen, 
and  no  longer  of  the  same  calibre." 

We  have  reason  to  believe  that  very  nice  manipu- 
lations, and  annealing  the  iron  after  zincing,  may 
remove  some  of  M.  Dumas'  objections  to  this  pro- 
cess. Still,  two  fatal  objections,  in  our  opinion, 
would  exist  to  its  use :  first,  the  impossibility  of  ob- 
taining pure  zinc,  except  at  an  enormous  expense, 
the  only  process  being  sublimation  or  distillation; 
and  secondly,  the  impossibility  of  retaining  its 
purity,  during  the  process  of  applying  it  to  iron. 

Setting  aside  the  fact  of  an  alloy  of  iron  and  zinc 
being  produced  by  the  action  of  heated  iron  immersed 
in  melted  zinc,  the  presence  of  foreign  matter  neces- 
sary to  retain  the  zinc  in  fusion,  renders  it  impure  ; 
these  matters  forming  less  fusible  compounds,  and 
zinc  being  very  volatile,  a  great  amount  of  waste  is 
created. 

But  it  is  well  known  to  all  those  acquainted  with 
the  deposition  of  metals  from  soluble  salts  by  the 
electro  process,  that  pure  metal  only  is  deposited; 


ON    COVERING    IRON    WITH   ZINC.  275 

so  that  this  process  is  not  open  to  the  objection  upon 
this  head,  which  may  be  made  to  every  other,  more 
especially  in  treating  a  metal  of  so  intractable  a 
character  as  zinc.  It  is  also  applicable  to  all  sizes 
and  shapes  of  work,  requires  no  expensive  erections, 
and,  what  is  important  in  large  operations,  may  be 
performed  anywhere,  and  by  any  person. 

Although  the  protecting  influence  of  zinc  (we  of 
course  speak  of  pure  zinc)  upon  other  metals  is 
practically  unknown,  it  has  been  well  known  to  men 
of  science  ;  and  we  shall  take  the  liberty  of  quoting 
the  opinions  of  some  of  the  best  chemists  upon  the 
subject ;  bearing  in  mind  that  zinc  is  electrically 
positive  to  other  metals,  and  as  such  protects  them 
from  oxidation  at  a  very  trifling  loss  to  itself — and 
that,  by  a  well  known  law  of  electrical  science,  one 
body  being  electrically  excited,  that  body  induces 
its  opposite  state  in  other  bodies  with  which  it  is  in 
contact.  Keeping  these  three  points  in  view,  we 
would  call  attention  to  the  following  opinions  : — Dr. 
Kane  says,  "  Zinc  preserves  the  other  metals,  even 
if  it  be  iron,  from  oxidation  ;"  and,  again,  "  Zinc, 
when  exposed  to  the  air  even  in  presence  of  water, 
becomes  covered  with  a  varnish  of  a  gray  substance, 
probably  a  definite  sub-oxide,  which  is  not  further 


276  BRASS   AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

altered  by  exposure."  Professor  Graham,  alluding 
to  iron  in  water,  says,  "  Articles  of  iron  may  be 
completely  defended  from  the  injury  occasioned  in 
this  way,  by  the  more  positive  metal  zinc,  while  the 
protecting  metal  itself  washes  away  slowly;"  and 
further,  when  speaking 'of  zinc,  "When  exposed  to 
air,  or  placed  in  water,  its  surface  becomes  covered 
with  a  gray  film  of  sub-oxide,  which  does  not 
increase ;  and  this  film  is  better  calculated  to  resist 
Doth  the  mechanical  and  chemical  effects  of  other 
bodies  than  the  metal  itself,  and  preserves  it."  And 
Professor  Daniel,  in  his  new  work,  says,  "  That  a 
plate  of  pure  zinc,  when  immersed  in  water,  speedily 
becomes  dulled  by  the  formation  of  a  thin  coat  of 
oxide ;  but  the  oxidation  proceeds  no  further,  be- 
cause the  adhesion  of  the  metal  prevents  a  renewed 
contact  of  the  metal  and  the  water." 

From  these  authorities  we  notice  that  pure  zinc 
has  a  double  protecting  influence,  the  iron  being 
protected  by  the  zinc,  and  the  zinc  by  its  own  oxide, 
besides  that  peculiar  galvanic  influence  induced  by 
the  .positive  state  of  the  zinc  with  respect  to  the 
iron.  With  regard  to  the  peculiar  adaptation  of  the 
electro  processes  to  the  zincing  of  iron,  we  shall 
again  quote  from  M.  Dumas'  Report.  He  says, 
4  Manufacturers,  and  those  concerned  in  military 


ON   COVERING   IRON    WITH   ZINC  277 

affairs  and  the  fine  arts,  will  learn  with  interest  that 
these  processes  enable  us  to  zinc,  in  an  economical 
manner,  iron,  steel,  and  cast  iron,  by  means  of  the 
pile  or  battery,  with  the  solution  of  zinc,  by  operat- 
ing without  heat,  and  consequently  not  interfering 
with  the  tenacity  of  the  metal ;  by  applying  it  in 
thin  layers,  and  by  thus  preserving  the  general  forms 
of  the  pieces,  and  even  the  appearance  of  their 
minutest  details.  The  thinnest  plate  may  receive 
this  preparation  without  becoming  brittle,  and  may 
be  turned  to  account  in  roofing  buildings." 

We  hope  these  authorities  fully  support  what  we 
have  asserted,  that  pure  zinc  affords  a  perfect  pro- 
tection to  iron,  is  not  itself  susceptible  of  rapid  de- 
cay, and  is  easily  applicable  to  the  electro  process. 
We  are  aware  that  other  opinions  upon  this  subject 
have  been  given ;  some  have  almost  denied  its  gal- 
vanic influence,  and  have  reduced  it  to  what  they 
term  a  mere  "tendency"  whilst  others  have  much 
overstated  it.  Effects  which  may  be  witnessed  every 
day,  prove  that  there  is  a  secret  galvanic  agency  at 
work  when  metals  are  in  contact.  Take,  for  in- 
stance, the  decay  of  iron  when  in  contact  with  lead, 
E'rery  one  has  observed  that  iron  railings  let  into 
stone  work  with  lead,  are  much  decayed  within  a 


278  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

short  space  of  the  contact  of  these  two  metals,  whil« 
the  remaining  portion  is  comparatively  sound.  This 
effect  is  from  the  iron  being  positive  to  the  lead, 
which  is  therefore  protected  at  the  expense  of  the 
iron. 

It  is  matter  of  regret  that  zinc  cannot  be  used  with 
the  same  protecting  property  to  articles  in  use  at  sea. 
This  arises  from  its  strong  affinity  for  muriatic  acid, 
thereby  forming  muriate  of  zinc,  which  being  readily 
soluble  is  taken  off  by  the  water,  leaving  a  new  sur- 
face of  zinc  to  be  acted  on,  thus  rapidly  destroying 
the  zinc. 

In  situations  where  the  articles  are  not  exposed 
to  the  run  of  salt  water,  the  zinc  will  be  found  a 
protection. 

The  zinced  iron  solders  readily.  All  other  metals 
may  be  treated  by  this  process  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. Copper  will  be  found  very  useful.  The  de- 
positions by  alkaline  solutions  are  perfectly  firm, 
and  not  subject  to  the  objection  to  which  those  made 
by  acid  solutions  are;  these  being  always  insecure 
from  the  formation  of  an  oxide  upon  the  iron,  in- 
duced by  the  acid  of  the  solution.  The  deposited 
copper  may  be  bronzed  or  gilt,  and  will  be  found 
most  useful  for  ornamental  work. 


ON   COVERING   IRON    WITH   ZINC.  279 

Many  specimens  of  zinced  iron,  some  of  whicl 
liad  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  weather  for 
months,  were  exhibited  to  the  meeting,  as  well,  a* 
specimens  of  iron  coated  with  copper  by  th«  sai/r., 
process. 

While  iron  may  be  protected  by  an  electro-deposit 
of  zinc,  the  process,  even  when  working  with  small 
articles,  is  connected  with  certain  difficulties,  and  is 
at  present  but  little  appllied  in  practice,  zincking  by 
immersion,  or  as  it  is  technically  called  "galvanizing," 
being  preferred.  In  order  that  the  metal  to  be  gal- 
vanized will  take  a  proper  coating  of  zinc,  it  requires 
to  be  freed  from  oxide  and  impurities  of  every  de- 
scription, which  is  generally  effected  by  pickling  it 
in  a  liquid  consisting  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid 
diluted  with  10  to  12  parts  of  water  and  subsequent 
washing  with  clean  water.  The  metal  is  then  im- 
mersed in  commercial  hydrochloric  acid  and  finally 
dried  in  an  oven,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  zinc  bath. 
The  temperature  of  the  latter  is  a  matter  of  vital  im- 
portance to  the  quality  of  the  work,  and  it  is  here 
that  the  skill  and  experience  of  the  workman  tells 
strongly.  For  sheet-iron  work  the  heat  of  the  bath 
is  kept  at  about  1000°  F. 


280 


BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER 


WATER  IN  PIPES. 

THIS  table  shows  the  quantity  and  weight  of 
water  contained  in  one  fathom  of  length  of  pipes  of 
different  hores  from  1  inch  to  12  inches  in  diameter, 
advancing  by  J  inch.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  water  is  taken  at  1000  ounces  avoirdupois,  and 
the  imperial  gallon  at  10  Ibs. 


Diameter  in 
inches. 

Quantity  in 
Cubic  inches. 

Quantity  in  Im- 
perial gallons. 

'    } 

Weight  in  IK 

Avoird. 

i 

14.14 

0.051 

0.61 

1 

50.55 

0.205 

2.0£ 

H 

127.23 

0.460 

4.60 

2 

226.19 

0.818 

8.18 

H 

353.43 

1.278 

12.78 

3 

508.94 

1.841 

18.41 

3* 

692.72 

2.506 

25.06 

4 

904.78 

3.272 

32.72 

4* 

1145.11 

4.142 

41.42 

5 

1413.72 

5.113 

51.13 

5* 

1710.60 

6.187 

61.87 

6 

2035.75 

7.363 

73.63 

6* 

2389.18 

8.641 

86.41 

7 

2770.88 

10.022 

100.22 

7* 

3180.86 

11.505 

115.05 

8 

3619.11 

13.090 

130.90 

N 

4085.64 

14.777 

147.77 

9 

4580.44 

16.567 

165.67 

9* 

5103.52 

18.459 

184.59 

10 

5654.87 

20.453 

204.53 

10J 

6234.49 

22.550 

225.50 

11 

6842.39 

24.748 

247.48 

11* 

7478.56 

27.049 

270.49 

12 

8143.01 

29.452 

294.62 

ON  CRUCIBLES.  281 


ON  CRUCIBLES. 

THE  manufacture  of  crucibles  is  a  branch  of  the 
potter's  art,  requiring  great  care  to  insure  success ; 
and  until  lately,  was  at  the  best  a  very  uncertain 
Drocess.  The  chief  requisites  in  a  good  crucible  are, 
refractoriness  in  the  strongest  heats,  capability  of 
withstanding  the  corrosive  eflects  of  any  substances 
that  may  be  ignited  in  them,  and  the  efiects  of  sud- 
den alterations  of  temperature.  They  must  also  be 
composed  of  a  material  sufficiently  solid  in  its  texture 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  solid  metal  through  its 
pores. 

The  composition  producing  pots  of  the  best  qua- 
lity is  formed  by  pure  fire  clay  mixed  with  finely 
ground  cement  of  old  crucibles,  to  which  is  added  a 
portion  of  black  lead  or  plumbago.  The  clay  is  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner  as  observed  in  pottery 
generally.  The  vessels,  after  being  worked  to  the 
proper  conical  shape,  are  slowly  dried,  and  then 
baked  in  a  kiln. 

The  composition  used  in  the  Royal  Foundry  of 
Berlin  is  formed  of  eight  parts  in  bulk  of  Stour- 
bridge-  clay  ard  cement,  five  of  coke,  and  four  of 


282  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

graphite  or  plumbago.  Crucibles  manufactured  froni 
this  mixture  are  capable  of  withstanding  the  greatest 
possible  heat  in  which  wrought  iron  melts,  being 
equal  to  from  150°  to  155°  Wedgewood.  They  also 
bear  sudden  cooling  without  cracking.  In  the  Ber- 
lin foundry  they  have  been  employed  for  twenty- 
three  consecutive  meltings  of  seventy-six  pounds  of 
iron  each,  which  perhaps  is  the  most  complete  and 
trying  test  that  could  be  adopted. 

Another  composition  is  as  follows : — 8  pounds 
Stourbridge  clay,  4  pounds  burned  clay  cement,  2 
pounds  coke  powder,  and  2  pounds  pipe  clay ;  the 
whole  being  compressed  in  moulds  while  in  a  pasty 
state. 

The  Hessian  crucibles  from  Great  Almerode  and 
Epterode,  resist  the  action  of  fluxes,  and  are  tole- 
rably lasting.  They  are  made  from  a  fire  clay  con- 
taining a  small  amount  of  iron,  but  no  lime.  This 
is  incorporated  with  silicious  sand.  These  crucibles 
are  rather  porous,  but  they  resist  the  effect  of  saline 
and  leaden  fluxes,  and  are  not  liable  to  crack,  but 
they  melt  below  the  fusing  point  of  bar  iron. 

The  black  lead  crucibles  bear  a  much  higher  heat. 
Their  composition  is  two  parts  of  graphite  and  one 
of  fire  clay ;  this  is  mixed  into  a  pasty  mass  by 
means  of  water.  The  crucibles  are  baked 'slightly 


OK    CRUCIBLES.  283 

in  the  kiln,  but  are  not  completely  hardened  until 
put  in  the  furnace  for  use.  They  are  of  a  smooth 
surface,  and  are  consequently  suitable  for  gold  and 
the  precious  metals  generally.  These  crucibles  are 
perhaps  the  very  best  yet  manufactured,  and  many 
of  the  brass  founders  throughout  Europe,  and,  for 
aught  I  have  yet  seen  to  the  contrary,  all  the  brass 
founders  of  America,  are  adopting  them  in  pre- 
ference to  ordinary  clay  ones. 

Mr.  Anstey's  patent  process  for  the  manufacture 
of  crucibles  is  as  follows : — 2  parts  of  finely  ground 

• 

raw  Stourbridge  clay,  and  1  part  of  the  hardest  gas 
coke,  previously  pulverized,  and  sifted  through  a 
sieve  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  mesh,  are  mixed  well 
together  with  water.  This  mixture  is  moulded  on  a 
revolving  wooden  block,  somewhat  similar  to  the 
process  pursued  in  pot  throwing,  a  gauge  being 
used  to  regulate  the  thickness  of  the  pot,  and  a  cap 
of  linen  placed  upon  the  core  previous  to  the  appli- 
cation of  the  clay,  in  order  to  prevent  its  adhering 
when  removed.  The  pot  is  then  dried  in  a  gentle 
heat,  and  is  not  thoroughly  completed  until  required 
for  use.  It  is  then  warmed  before  a  fire,  and  laid 
in  the  furnace,  with  the  mouth  downwards — the  heat 
of  the  fire  having  been  previously  lowered  by  the 
application  of  fresh  coke.  It  is  gradually  brought 


284  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

up  to  a  red  heat,  reversed,  and  fixed  in  its  proper 
position  in  the  furnace,  and  is  then  ready  to  receive 
the  charge  of  metal. 


PLUMBAGO. 

PLUMBAGO,  or  black  lead,  of  which  pencils  are 
made,  is  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  9  parts,  carbon  to  1  of  iron.  It  has 
nothing  similar  to  lead  about  it,  unless  its  inquinat- 
ing  property,  by  which  paper  is  so  readily  marked. 
In  this  combination  we  have  a  metallic  alloy  less 
cohesive  than  almost  any  other  substance,  mercurial 
amalgam  excepted;  whilst  the  very  same  ingredients, 
in  diiferent  proportions,  produce  another  alloy,  steel, 
which  has  properties  diametrically  opposite,  as  it 
is  capable  of  cutting  the  hardest  substances,  with 
very  few  exceptions.  The  softest  steel  is  harder 
than  the  hardest  iron. 


ANNEALING   STEEL.  285 


ANNEALING  STEEL. 

OWING  to  the  fact  that  the  operations  of  rolling  or 
hammering  steel  make  it  very  hard,  it  is  frequently 
necessary  that  the  steel  should  be  annealed  before  it 
can  be  conveniently  cut  into  required  shapes  for 
tools. 

Annealing  or  softening  is  accomplished  by  heating 
steel  to  a  red  heat  and  then  cooling  it  very  slowly, 
to  prevent  it  from  getting  hard  again.  The  higher 
the  degree  of  heat,  the  more  the  steel  will  be  soft- 
ened, until  the  limit  of  softness  is  reached,  when  the 
steel  is  melted. 

It  does  not  follow  that  the  higher  a  piece  of  steel 
is  heated,  the  softer  it  will  be  when  cooled;  this 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  an  ingot  is  always  harder, 
than  a  rolled  or  hammered  bar  made  from  it. 

Therefore,  there  is  nothing  gained  by  heating  a 
piece  of  steel  hotter  than  a  good  bright  cherry-red  ; 
on  the  contrary,  a  higher  heat  has  several  disadvan- 
tages : 

First.  If  carried  too  far,  it  may  leave  the  steel 
actually  harder  than  a  good  red  heat  would  leave  it. 

Second.  If  a  scale  is  raised  on  the  steel,  this  scale 


286  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

will  be  harsh,  granular  oxide  of  iron,  and  nrill  spoil 
the  tools  used  to  cut  it.  It  often  occurs  that  steel  is 
scaled  in  this  way,  and  then  because  it  does  not  cut 
well,  it  is  customary  to  heat  it  again,  and  hotter  still, 
to  overcome  the  trouble ;  while  the  fact  is,  that  the 
more  this  operation  is  repeated,  the  harder  the  steel 
will  work,  because  of  the  hard  scale  and  the  harsh 
grain  underneath.  ) *'\ 

Third.  A  high  scaling  heat,  continued  for  a  little 
time,  changes  the  structure  of  the  steel,  destroys  its 
crystalline  property,  makes  it  brittle,  liable  to  crack 
in  hardening,  and  impossible  to  refine. 

Again,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  put  steel  into  a 
hot  furnace  at  the  close  of  a  day's  work,  and  leave  it 
there  all  night.  This  method  always  gets  the  steel, 
too  hot,  always  raises  a  scale  on  it,  and  worse  than 
either,  leaves  it  soaking  in  the  fire  too  long ;  and  this 
is  more  injurious  to  steel  than  any  other  operation  to 
which  it  can  be  subjected. 

A  good  illustration  of  the  destruction  of  crystal- 
line structure  by  long-continued  heating  may  be  had 
by  operating  on  chilled  cast-iron. 

If  a  chill  be  heated  red-hot  and  removed  from  the 
fire  as  soon  as  it  is  hot,  it  will,  when  cold,  retain  its 
peculiar  crystalline  structure;  if  it  now  bo  heated  red 
hot,  and  left  at  a  moderate  red  for  several  hours — in 


ANNEALING    STEEL.  287 

short,  if  it  be  treated  as  steel  often  is — and  be  ieft  in 
a  furnace  over  night,  it  will  be  found,  when  cold,  to 
have  a  perfect  amorphous  structure,  every  trace  of 
chill-crystals  will  be  gone,  and  the  whole  piece  will 
be  non-crystalline  gray  cast-iron.  If  this  is  the 
effect  upon  coarse  cast-iron,  what  better  is  to  be  ex- 
pected from  fine  cast-steel  ? 

A  piece  of  fine  tap-steel  after  having  been  in  a 
furnace  over  night  will  act  as  follows : 

It  will  be  harsh  in  the  lathe  and  spoil  the  cutting 
tools. 

When  hardened  it  will  almost  certainly  crack  ;  if 
it  does  not  crack,  it  will  have  been  a  remarkably  good 
steel  to  begin  with.  When  the  temper  is  drawn  to  the 
proper  color  and  the  tap  is  put  into  use,  the  teeth 
will  either  crumble  off  or  crush  down  like  so  much 
lead. 

Upon  breaking  the  tap  the  grain  will  be  coarse 
and  the  steel  brittle.  To  anneal  any  piece  of  steel, 
heat  it  red  hot;  heat  it  uniformly  and  heat  it 
through,  taking  care  not  to  let  the  ends  and  corners 
get  too  hot. 

As  soon  as  it  is  hot  take  it  out  of  the  fire,  the 
sooner  the  better,  and  cool  it  as  slowly  as  possible. 
A  good  rule  for  heating  is  to  heat  it  at  so  low  a  red 
that  when  the  piece  is  cold  it  will  show  the  blue 


288  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNLER. 

gloss  of  the  oxide  that  was  put  there  by  the  hammer 
or  the  rolls. 

Steel  annealed  in  this  way  will  cut  very  soft ;  it 
will  harden  very  hard  without  cracking,  and  when 
tempered  it  will  be  very  strong,  nicely  refined,  and 
will  hold  a  keen,  strong  edge. 


HARDENING  STEEL.  289 


HARDENING  STEEL. 

THE  process  of  hardening  steel  is  called  temper- 
ing or  attempering ',  and  consists  in  that  novel  ar- 
rangement of  the  particles  which  is  produced  when 
steel,  while  hot,  is  plunged  into  cold  liquids,  as 
water.  The  colder  the  liquid,  or  the  more  sudder. 
the  operation  of  cooling,  the  harder  will  the  stee. 
be. 

Case-hardening  is  the  superficial  conversion  of  the 
surface  of  iron  into  steel,  by  heating  it  in  contact 
with  animal  carbon,  in  close  vessels.  Bar  iron  is 
converted  into  steel  in  the  same  way,  only  that 
powdered  charcoal  is  the  substance  in  which  it  is 
imbedded. 


ON  BORON. 


THIS  is  the  basis  of  a  substance  which  has  been 
long  and  extensively  used  in  the  arts  and  in  medi- 
cine, under  the  name  of  borax.  It  is  found  abund- 
antly in  Thibet  and  in  South  America*  but  in  a 


19 


290  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER, 

state  too  impure  to  be  used  without  refining.  This 
was  long  a  secret  process  practised  by  the  Venetians 
and  Dutch,  who  imported  the  crude  salt  into  Europe, 
under  the  name  of  tincal. 

Borax  has  a  sweetish  taste,  and  is  "  soluble  in 
twelve  parts  of  cold,  and  two  parts  of  boiling  water." 
Its  crystals  are  transparent,  but  effloresce  and  be- 
come opaque  in  a  dry  atmosphere ;  and  they  appear 
luminous  by  friction  in  the  dark. 

It  melts  at  a  heat  a  little  above  that  of  boiling 
water,  and  gives  out  its  water  of  crystallization, 
after  which  it  forms  a  spongy  mass,  well  known  as 
calcined  borax.  When  further  heated  to  ignition, 
it  passes  into  a  glassy-looking  substance,  known  as 
glacial  borax. 

Boracic  acid  is  obtained  in  unlimited  quantity 
from  the  lakes  of  Tuscany.  The  water  requires 
simply  to  be  evaporated  until  the  acid  solution  has 
been  sufficiently  concentrated  to  afford  crystals. 
The  acid  thus  obtained  is  chiefly  taken  to  M. 
Payen's  works,  at  Marseilles,  where  it  is  manu- 
factured into  borax. 

Dry  borax,  at  a  high  temperature,  has  the  re 
markable  property  of  melting  and  vitrifying  tin 
metallic  oxides  into  glasses  of  different  colours.  On 
this  account  it  is  a  most  useful  reagent  for  the  blow 


ON   BORON.  291 

pipe.  With  oxide  of  chrome  it  forms  an  emerald 
green  glass,  and  with  oxide  of  cobalt  an  intensely 
blue  glass. 

Oxide  of  copper  tinges  it  pale-blue ;  oxides  of  iron, 
bottle-green ;  oxide  of  tin,  opal ;  oxide  of  manganese, 
violet ;  oxide  of  nickel,  pale  yellowish-green.  With 
the  oxides  of  silver  and  zinc,  and  with  several  of  the 
earths,  it  forms  white  enamels. 

Borax,  in  consequence  of  this  property  of  vitrify- 
ing the  metallic  oxides,  is  used  to  clean  the  surface 
of  metals,  in  processes  of  soldering  with  hard  solder, 
and  of  welding  cast  steel. 

It  is  also  valuable  in  the  fusion  of  metals  to  pro- 
tect their  surface  from  oxidizement.  And  it  is  worthy 
of  remark,  that,  when  mixed  with  shell-lac,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  part  to  five,  borax  renders  that 
resinous  substance  soluble  in  water,  and  forms  with 
it  a  species  of  varnish. 


292  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


ON    SULPHUR. 

THIS  element,  popularly  known  as  brimstone^ 
stands  sufficiently  well  characterized  by  its  brittle- 
ness,  non-metallic  appearance,  and  peculiar  yellow 
colour.  As  a  combustible  it  is  universally  known. 
Exposed  to  a  temperature  of  218°  it  melts  almost 
into  a  liquid.  When  heated  a  few  degrees  higher, 
it  becomes  tenacious ;  and  when  heated  to  the  tem- 
perature of  300°,  it  takes  fire,  burns  away  with  a 
lambent  blue  flame,  and  leaves  no  residuum.  As 
the  temperature  rises  the  flame  becomes  more  white : 
and  in  pure  oxygen  gas  the  combustion  goes  on  with 
great  brilliancy. 

If,  while  melted  and  viscid,  sulphur  be  poured 
into  cold  water,  it  acquires  somewhat  the  consist- 
ency of  soft  sealing-wax,  and  in  this  state  it  is  very 
commonly  used  for  taking  impressions  from  seals 
and  medals. 

Native  sulphur  is  brought  into  this  country  chiefly 
from  Sicily,  where  it  occurs  in  beds  of  a  blue  clay 
formation,  occupying  the  central  half  of  tue  south 
coast  of  the  island,  and  extending  inwards  as  far  as 
the  district  of  Etna.  Sulphur  is  also  an  abundant 
ingredient  in  various  minerals:  iron  pyrites  and 


ON    SULPHUR.  29o 

galena,  sulphurets  of  iron  and  lead,  are  particularly 
abundant  in  some  localities :  and  at  one  time  a  large 
portion  of  the  sulphur  used  in  England  was  obtained 
from  the  copper  pyrites  of  the  mines  of  Anglesey* 
It  was,  however,  less  pure  than  the  fine  sulphur  of 
Sicily,  and  other  volcanic  districts,  being  commonly 
mixed  with  arsenic  and  other  metallic  impregnations, 
which  are  difficult  to  separate. 

Sulphur  is  sometimes  employed  for  cementing 
iron  bars  into  stone ;  and  at  present  it  is  in  repute 
for  taking  impressions  of  seals  and  cameos.  When 
used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  commonly  kept  previouslj 
melted  for  some  time,  to  give  the  casts  the  appear 
ance  of  bronze.  The  principal  consumption  of  it, 
however,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid, 
gunpowder,  and  vermillion. 

When  the  end  of  a  sulphur  match  is  lighted,  the 
flame  emits  copious  fumes,  which  are  a  compound 
of  oxygen  and  sulphur.  These  fumes  are  intensely 
acid  to  the  taste  ;  they  constitute  what  is  called  sul- 
phurous acid,  the  first  of  the  combinations  of  sul- 
phur and  oxygen.  The  gas  has  a  strong  affinity  for 
the  water,  and  the  solution  which  it  forms  with  it  is 
known  as  liquid  sulphurous  acid.  This,  if  left  ex- 
posed  to  the  air,  absorbs  more  oxygen,  and  passes 
into  sulphuric  acid. 


294  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

Sulphur  also  combines  with  hydrogen,  forming 
the  highly  poisonous  and  offensive  gas  known  as  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  and  which  not  unfrequently 
contaminates  the  coal  gas  supplied  to  us  for  illumi- 
nation. Sulphur  and  carbon  also  combine,  and  form 
a  beautifully  transparent  and  colourless  liquid,  ex- 
ceedingly volatile,  and  giving  off  an  odour  the  most 
foetid  and  nauseous  which  it  is  possible  to  conceive. 
Sulphur  likewise  enters  into  combination  with  metals, 
forming  sulphurets,  and  is  a  most  excellent  flux  in 
the  making  of  brazing  solder. 


SELENIUM. 

THIS  is  a  rare  elementary  substance,  nearly  allied 
to  sulphur  in  its  properties,  although  it  in  some  re- 
spects partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  metal.  It  was 
discovered  by  Berzelius,  in  1817,  in  the  refuse  of 
an  oil  of  vitriol  manufactory,  where  it  was  derived 
from  the  iron  pyrites  employed  in  the  works,  and 
which  contain  a  mixture  in  very  minute  proportions 
of  a  similar  compound  of  selenium  and  iron.  It  haa 
also  been  found  sparingly  in  combination  with  seve 


ON   CHLORINE.  295 

ral  other  metals,  as  lead,  cobalt,  copper,  and  bis- 
muth ;  and  with  sulphur,  in  the  volcanic  products 
of  the  Lipari  Islands. 

It  is  separated  from  its  combinations  with  diffi- 
culty, and  hitherto  only  in  minute  quantities.  When 
obtained  free  of  admixture,  selenium,  at  common 
temperatures,  is  brittle,  solid,  of  a  reddish-brown 
colour,  and  metallic  lustre,  without  taste  or  smell. 
But  when  finely  powdered  the  powder  assumes  a 
deep-red,  inclined  to  purple.  It  softens  at  the  tem- 
perature of  180° ;  is  pasty  at  200°,  and  melts  at  a 
few  degrees  above  the  boiling  point  of  water.  "When 
warm  it  exhales  a  strong  odour  of  decayed  horse- 
radish, and  is  so  ductile  that  it  may  be  drawn  into 
threads,  which  are  red  by  transmitted,  but  gray  by 
reflected  light.  It  boils  at  600°,  and  in  close  vessels 
throws  off  deep-yellow  vapours,  which  condense  into 
black,  metallic-looking  drops. 


ON  CHLORINE. 


CHLORINE  enters  into  numerous  highly  important 
and  interesting  combinations.  Various  bodies,  when 
immersed  in  it  when  in  a  liquid  state  (that  is,  when, 


296  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER, 

submitted  to  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres,  it  be 
comes  a  yellow  transparent  liquid),  take  fire  sponta- 
neously. A  candle  burns  in  it  with  a  red  flame,  arid 
a  piece  of  phosphorus  introduced  into  it,  burns  with 
a  pale-white  light.  Copper,  tin,  zinc,  antimony,  and 
arsenic,  when  introduced  into  it  in  their  leaves,  or 
reduced  to  filings,  take  fire,  and,  combining  with  the 
gas,  form  compounds  analogous  to  the  oxides,  and 
which  are  therefore  called  chlorides.  Mercury  also 
enters  rapidly  into  combination  with  it,  forming 
chloride  of  mercury,  a  substance  better  known  a» 
corrosive  sublimate. 

The  grand  source  of  chlorine  is  the  water  of  the 
ocean.  This  is  an  enormous  solution  of  salt — a 
universally  known  and  indispensable  article  of  con- 
sumption with  the  human  race ;  an  article,  indeed, 
which  seems  to  be  essentially  necessary  to  maintain 
the  body  in  a  healthy  condition.  Now  this  salt  is  a 
compound  of  chlorine  and  a  metal.  It  is,  in  fact,  a 
chloride,  consisting,  when  pure,  of  60  of  chlorine, 
and  40  of  sodium,  in  100  parts ;  and  whether  it  be 
obtained  by  evaporation  of  sea  water,  or  be  dug  out 
of  the  salt  mines  of  Wieliczka  or  Northwich,  it  has 
the  same  composition. 


METALLIC   OXIDES.  297 


SOME  of  the  minerals  contain  but  one  earth ;  but 
minerals  are  found  in  which  the  earths  are  combined 
in  different  proportions,  by  processes  which  produce 
that  apparently  endless  variety  of  objects  which 
mineral  nature  presents  for  our  contemplation. 

Science  has  of  late  years  demonstrated  that  none 
of  the  earths  are  simple  substances,  that  is,  chemical 
elements.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  has  proved  that 
none  of  them  are  entitled  to  that  character,  that 
they  are  in  fact  compounds  of  certain  metals  witn 
oxygen — that  is,  metallic  oxides.  This  has  been 
shown  by  the  very  direct  method  of  abstracting 
oxygen  from  them,  and  thereby  separating  the  me- 
tallic base.  Thus,  alumina  (being  the  basis  of  alum) 
is  the  oxide  of  a  gray  and  hard  metal  like  platinum, 
and  which  burns  with  great  brilliancy  when  heated 
with  access  of  air,  and  reproduces  the  earth  by  ab 
sorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere. 

It  is  very  singular  that  soda,  as  distinguished  from 
potash,  has  been  known  with  us  only  of  late  years ; 
whereas  it  was  familiar  to  the  Greeks  and  Hebrews. 
It  was  also  known  in  Egypt,  where  it  is  found  na- 
tive, and  is  known  by  the  name  of  natron — which 


298  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOuNDER. 

occurs  in  the  Bible.   T^hus  Jeremiah  speaks  of  wash- 
ing in  natron.* 

From  the  preceding  summary  we  may  reckon 
ourselves  justified  in  concluding  that  the  solid  strata 
of  our  globe — that  is,  the  superficial  shell  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  if  not  the  vast  mass  of  the  globe 
itself — are  nothing  more  than  masses  of  metals  of 
diiferent  kinds,  disguised  by  oxygen :  that  they  are 
in  fact  oxides,  and  bear  evidence,  in  many  cases,  of 
being  the  products  of  combustion. 

ANILINE  BRONZING  FLUID. 

TAKE  10  parts  of  aniline  red  and  5  parts  of  aniline 
purple  and  dissolve  in  100  parts  of  alcohol  at  95°, 
taking  care  to  assist  the  solution  by  placing  the  ves- 
sel in  a  sand  or  water  bath.  As  soon  as  the  solution 
is  effected,  5  parts  of  benzoic  acid  are  added  and  thb 
whole  is  boiled  from  5  to  10  minutes  until  the  green- 
ish color  of  the  mixture  is  transformed  into  a  fine 
light-colored  bronze.  This  bronze  is  said  to  be  very 
brilliant,  and  to  be  applicable  to  all  metals,  as  well 
as  to  other  substances.  It  is  easily  laid  on  with  a 
brush  and  dries  promptly. 

BRONZE   BARBEDIENNE   ON    BRASS. 

Freshly  precipitated  arsenious  sulphide  is  dissolved 

*  Jeremiah  ii.  22. 


9  TO  BRONZE  GUN  BARRELS.         299 

in  ammonia,  and  antimonious  sulphide  is  added  until 
a  dark  yellow  color  is  produced.  Heat  the  solution 
carefully  to  about  95°  F.  Leave  the  articles  in  the 
bath  until  they  have  acquired  a  dark  brown  color, 
and  develop  the  color  by  scratch-brushing. 

Steel-gray  coating  on  Brass. 
Antimony  sulphide  and  fine  iron  filings,  1  part  of 
each ;  hydrochloric  acid  3  parts ;  and  water  3  or  4 
parts. 

TO  BROWN   GUN   BARRELS. 

TAKE  of  nitric  acid,  half  an  ounce  ;  sweet  spirit 
of  nitre  half  an  ounce  ;  blue  vitriol,  two  ounces  ; 
tincture  of  steel,  one  ounce.  Mix  all  together  in 
eight  gills  of  water.  Apply  this  mixture  with  a 
sponge,  then  heat  the  barrel  a  little,  and  move  the 
oxide  with  a  hard  brush.  This  operation  may  be 
repeated  a  third  and  fourth  time,  till  you  have  the 
brown  required. 

It  is  then  to  be  carefully  wiped,  and  sponged  with 
boiling  water,  in  which  there  has  been  put  a  small 
quantity  of  potass.  The  barrel  being  taken  from 
the  water,  must  be  made  perfectly  dry,  and  then 
rubbed  smooth  with  a  burnisher  of  hard  wood  ; 
afterwards  heated  to  the  height  of  boiling  water 
and  varnished  with  the  following  varnish: — 


300  BRAbS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

Varnish  for  gun  barrels  that  have  undergone  the 
process  of  browning. 

TAKE  of  spirits  of  wine  two  parts,  dragon's  blocd, 
powdered,  three  drachms;  shell-lac  bruised,  one 
ounce :  dissolve  all  together.  This  varnish  being  laid 
on  the  barrel,  and  become  perfectly  dry,  must  be 
rubbed  with  a  burnisher  to  render  it  smooth  and 
glossy. 


ETHEREAL  SOLUTION   OP  GOLD. 

SATURATE  nitro-hydrochloric  acid  with  pure  gold. 
Crystallize,  and  with  the  crystals  saturate  water. 
Shake  this  aqueous  solution  in  a  phial  with  an  equal 
volume  of  pure  ether;  then  two  fluids  will  result, 
the  lighter  of  which  is  the  ethereal  solution  of  gold, 
and  may  easily  be  separated.  This  must  be  kept  in 
a  darkened  bottle,  as  by  exposure  to  light  it  quickly 
decomposes,  flakes  of  gold  being  deposited. 

Any  substance  moistened  with  this  will  receive  a 
coating  of  metallic  gold,  and  .hence  metals  may  be 
rendered  not  liable  to  corrosion. 

Even  in  the  dark  it  cannot  be  preserved  long, 
but.  undergoes  slow  decomposition 


TINNING.  301 


PUT  half  an  ounce  of  powdered  tin  (which  may 
be  procured  of  any  operative  chemist),  into  a  com- 
mon Florence  flask,  pour  on  about  two  ounces  of 
concentrated  muriatic   acid,  and  boil  over  a  spirit 
lamp  until  the  tin  is  dissolved.     When  cool,  pour 
into  any  convenient  vessel  and  dilute  with  about  an 
equal  bulk  of  pure  water.     Drop  in  the  nails  required 
to  be  coated,  holding  the  vessel  so  that  they  may  all 
fall  to  one  side.     Immerse  a  piece  of  sheet-copper 
into  the  solution,  as  far  apart  from  the  nails  as  pos- 
sible, and  connect  it  with  the  latter  by  means  of  a 
piece  of  copper  wire.     The  effect  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  the  developement  of   a  current  of  voltaic 
electnoity,  which  causes  a  rapid  decomposition  of  the 
fluid,  and  the  deposition  of  tin  on  the  surface  of  the 
nails.     After  being  subjected  to  this  treatment  for 
about  an  hour,  the  nails  will  be  found  to  have  re- 
ceived a  thick  coating  of  metal,  and  may  then  be 
removed  from  the  liquid,  dried,  and  polished. 

Recourse  is  frequently  had  to  the  above  procesd 
for  the  purpose  of  coating  the  nibs  of  steel  pens 
with  tin,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  rusting.  It 
succeeds  better  than  any  other  method  ever  tried. 


802  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


BRONZING   ELECTROTYPE   CASTS. 

Chemical  Bronze. 

THERE  are  many  modes  of  bronzing  employed  in 
the  arts  ;  the  intent  of  each  is  to  bring  out  the  work- 
manship of  the  object.  The  selection  is  entirely  a 
matter  of  taste.  To  prevent  too  great  a  sameness 
of  appearance  in  a  cabinet,  it  is,  perhaps,  better  not 
to  confine  oneself  to  a  solitary  method. 

A  chemical  bronze  may  be  made  by  boiling  two 
ounces  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  with  one  ounce  of 
acetate  of  copper,  in  half  a  pint  of  vinegar,  till  the 
vinegar  is  nearly  evaporated.  Into  this,  pour  a 
solution  consisting  ot  sixty-two  grains  oi  muriate 
of  ammonia,  and  fifteen  grains  and  a  halt  of  oxalic 
acid,  in  half  a  pint  of  vinegar,  iteplace  the  vessel 
on  the  fire  till  the  contents  boil ;  when  cold,  strain 
through  filtering  paper ;  preserve  the  liquor  for  use. 
The  remaining  sediment  may  be  again  treated  with 
another  half  pint  of  the  solution.  This  preparation 
must  only  be  applied  to  medals  bright  and  clean. 

Dirty  specimens  may  be  polished  by  an  article 
used  in  domestic  economy,  consisting  of  rotten- 
stone,  soft  soap,  and  water.  The  medal  is  to  b« 


BRONZING   ELECTROTYPE   CASTS.  803 

well  rubbed  with  a  hard  brush  dipped  in  this.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  scratch  the  medal.  It  must 
afterwards  be  washed  in  water  and  placed  to  dry ; 
when  dry,  the  application  of  the  leather  and  plate- 
brush  will  produce  the  required  polish.  Medals  may 
also  be  cleansed  by  dipping  them  in  nitric  acid, 
either  concentrated  or  diluted.  Wax  and  grease 
may  be  removed  by  boiling  in  pearl-ash  and  water. 
9r  by  pouring  the  boiling  ley  on  the  medals. 

In  applying  the  bronze,  first  warm  the  medal,  then 
dip  a  camel-hair  pencil  intc  the  liquor  and  brush  the 
surface  for  half  a  minute ;  immediately  after,  pour 
boiling  water  over  it.  Directly  the  medal  is  dry. 
rub  its  surface  lightly  with  soft  cotton  very  slightly 
moistened  in  linseed  oil.  Gentle  friction  with  a 
piece  of  dry  cotton  will  finish  the  operation.  The 
colour  produced  by  this  means  is  red  ;  its  tints  vary 
according  to  circumstances.  Medals  bronzed  thus 
must  be  examined  occasionally  before  they  are  con- 
signed to  the  cabinet;  for  if  perchance  the  vinegar 
has  not  been  perfectly  washed  away,  they  will  be 
disfigured  by  the  formation  of  a  green  powder, — the 
acetate  of  copper.  Should  this  occur,  it  may  be 
vemoved  by  means  of  the  moist  and  dry  cotton. 


304  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


BLACK   LEAD   BRONZE. 

A  VERY  beautiful  bronze  is  obtained  by  the  simple 
application  of  plumbago.  It  is  obtained  in  a  few 
minutes,  and  with  very  little  trouble.  The  tint  ob- 
tained seems  much  to  depend  on  the  state  of  the 
surface  of  the  original  medal.  Copies  of  some 
medals  "take"  the  black  lead  better  than  those  of 
others.  To  produce  the  tint  in  the  greatest  perfec- 
tion, the  operation  should  be  performed  immediately 
after  the  medal  is  separated  from  the  mould.  Bright 
specimens  from  fusible  moulds  are  best,  but  all  others 
may  be  thus  treated ;  those  taken  from  wax  should 
be  cleansed  with  pearlash  or  soda. 

The  bronze  is  obtained  by  brushing  the  surface 
of  the  medal  with  plumbago,  then  placing  it  on  a 
ciear  fire  till  it  is  made  too  hot  to  be  touched,  and 
applying  a  plate  brush  so  soon  as  it  ceases  to  be  hot 
enough  to  burn  the  brush.  A  few  strokes  of  the 
brush  will  produce  a  dark  brown  polish,  approaching 
black,  but  entirely  distinct  from  the  well  known 
appearance  of  bla(?k  lead.  If  the  same  operation  is 
performed  on  a  medal  that  has  been  kept  some  days, 
or  upon  one  that  has  been  polished,  a  different,  but 
verv  brilliant  tint  is  produced.  The  colour,  is 


TO   TIN    IRON.  805 

between  red  and  brown.  The  richness  of  colour 
thus  produced  is  by  many  preferred  to  the  true  dark 
brown. 


CARBONATE  OP  IRON  BRONZE. 

BEAUTIFUL  tints  are  produced  by  using  plate- 
powder  or  rouge.  After  moistening  with  water,  it 
is  applied  and  treated  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
as  the  plumbago. 


TO   TIN   IRON. 

METAL  to  be  tinned  must  be  cleansed,  if  new  work, 
oy  putting  it  in  a  pickle — a  mixture  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  water — then  scoured  with  sand,  and  cleansed 
in  water :  but  if  old,  the  pickle  should  be  a  mixture 
of  muriatic  acid  and  water.  It  is  then  ready  for 
tinning. 

The  article  should  be  placed  on  the  fire,  and  suf- 
ficient heat  applied  to  melt  the  tin.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  too  great  a  heat  should  not  be  applied,  or 
the  article  will  be  burned.  It  must  be  rubbed  welJ 

20 


306  BRASS    AND    IRON   FOUNDER. 

with  a  piece  of  sal-ammoniac  placed  between  two 
wires,  likewise  some  powder  sprinkled  upon  it,  to 
keep  the  metal  from  oxidating.  Apply  the  tin,  wipe 
;t  over  with  a  piece  of  tow,  then  the  work  is  finished. 


LIQUID   GLUE. 

SHELL-LAC  dissolved  in  wood  naptha  (the  pyroxilic 
spirit  of  the  chemists,  and  the  naptha  of  the  oil  and 
colour  shops)  makes  good  liquid  glue,  water-proof, 
and  not  requiring  the  application  of  heat.  A  quarter 
of  a  pound  avoirdupois  of  shell-lac  to  be  dissolved  in 
tnree  ounces  of  naptha,  apothecaries'  measure.  Put 
the  former  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle;  pour  the 
latter  upon  it,  and  stir  the  mixture  two  or  three 
times  during  the  first  thirty-six  hours. 


ARTIFICIAL   FIRE-CLAY. 


THE  fusibility  of  common  clay  arises  from  the  pre- 
sence of  impurities,  such  as  lime,  iron,  and  magnesia. 
These  substances  may  be  easily  removed  by  steeping 


A   VALUABLE   CEMENT.  307 

in  hot  muriatic  acid,  then  washing  with  water,  and 
drying.  Excellent  crucibles  may  be  made  from 
common  clay  prepared  in  this  manner. 


A  CEMENT  WHICH  RESISTS  THE  ACTION  OF  FIRE  AND 
WATER. 

TAKE  half  a  pint  of  milk,  mix  with  it  an  equal 
quantity  of  vinegar,  so  as  to  coagulate  the  milk; 
separate  the  curds  from  the  whey,  and  mix  the  lat- 
ter with  the  whites  of  four  or  five  eggs,  well  beaten 
up.  The  mixture  of  these  two  substances  being 
complete,  add  to  them  quick-lime,  which  has  been 
passed  through  a  sieve ;  make  the  whole  into  a  thick 
paste,  to  be  of  the  consistence  of  putty  when  used. 

This  cement  has  been  applied  to  close  the  fissure 
of  an  iron  cauldron  for  the  boiling  of  pitch,  and 
which  has  been  in  use  for  five  years  without  requir- 
ing further  repairs. 


S08  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


CEMENT   FOR  THE  JOINTS   OF   CAST   IRON. 

TAKE  of  cast  iron  borings,  20  pounds ;  flour  of 
sulphur,  2  ounces;  muriate  of  ammonia,  1  ounce; 
mix  intimately  in  the  dry  state,  and  then  add  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  warm  water  to  render  the  whole 
quite  wet.  Press  the  mass  together  in  a  lump,  and 
allow  it  to  remain  until  such  time  as  the  combined 
action  of  the  materials  renders  it  quite  hot,  in  which 
state  it  must  be  hammered,  with  proper  tools,  int< 
the  joints. 


NIELLO-METALLIC   ORNAMENTS. 

COVER  the  object  to  be  ornamented  with  an  etch- 
'jig  ground  similar  to  that  employed  by  copper-plate 
engravers ;  draw  the  ornament  with  a  needle,  and 
etch  it  by  means  of  a  corrosive  acid ;  then  carefully 
remove  the  etching  ground  with  the  proper  dissolv- 
ing fluids  (such  as  oil  of  turpentine,  ether,  &c.),  and 
afterwards  wash  the  object  quite  clean,  and  set  for 


NIELLO-METALLIC    ORNAMENLS,  ETC.  309 

ri  moment  with  a  weak  acid.  Place  it  now  in  a  gal 
va no-plastic  apparatus,  and  leave  it  until  it  becomes 
galvano-plastically  covered,  that  is,  all  the  etched 
lines  filled  up.  When  all  the  lines  and  cavities  are 
completely  filled  up  in  this  way,  and  the  deposit  in 
them  is  equally  high  as,  or  yet  higher  than,  the 
plain  surface,  the  object  must  be  taken  out  of  the 
galvano-plastic  apparatus,  and  the  metallic  layer, 
which  has  been  raised  by  the  operation,  ground  or 
planed  oft7  until  brought  to  the  same  level  with  the 
metal  of  the  object,  leaving  the  etched  lines  or  cavi 
ties  full. 

Of  course,  the  metal  of  the  object  to  be  orna 
mented  and  the  metallic  deposit  must  be  different* 
The  effect  produced  is  extremely  pretty,  and  the 
means  cheap  and  simple. 


TRACING   PAPER. 


Mix  six  parts  (by  weight)  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
one  of  resin,  one  of  boiled  nut  oil,  and  lay  on  with 
either  a  brush  or  sponge. 


310  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


TO   FIX  DRAWINGS. 

A  METHOD  which  is  equally  simple  and  ingenious, 
of  giving  to  drawings  in  pencils  and  crayons  the 
fixidity  of  painting,  and  without  injury,  is  obtained 
by  spreading  over  the  back  of  the  paper  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  white  gum-lac.  This  solution  quickly 
penetrates  the  paper,  and  enters  even  into  the  marks 
of  the  crayon  on  the  other  side. 

The  alcohol  rapidly  evaporates,  so  that  in  an 
instant  all  the  light  dust  from  the  crayons  and  chalk, 
which  resembles  that  on  the  wings  of  a  butterfly, 
adheres  so  firmly  to  the  paper,  that  the  drawing  may 
be  rubbed  and  carried  about  without  the  least  par- 
ticle being  effaced. 

The  following  are  the  accurate  proportions  of  the 
solution  :  10  parts  of  common  gum-lac  are  dissolved 
in  120  parts  of  alcohol;  the  liquid  is  afterwards 
bleached  with  animal  charcoal. 

For  the  same  purpose  may  be  used  even  the  ready- 
made  paint  that  can  be  purchased  at  the  colour 
stores,  containing  a  sixth  of  white-lac,  and  adding 
two-thirds  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine.  After  it  has 
been  filtered,  there  is  nothing  further  to  be  done 


USEFUL   RECEIP1S.  311 

than  to  spread  a  layer  of  either  of  these  solutions 
at  the  back  of  the  drawing,  in  order  to  give  them 
the  solidity  required. 


ANTIDOTE   TO  ARSENIC 

MAGNESIA  is  an  antidote  to  arsenic,  equally  effi- 
cacious with  peroxide  of  iron,  and  preferable  to  it, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  completely  innocuous  in  almost  any 
quantity,  and  can  be  procured  in  any  form. 


TO   SOFTEN  IVORY. 

SLICE  half  a  pound  of  mandrake  and  put  it  into 
a  quart  of  the  best  vinegar,  into  which  immerse  your 
ivory.  Let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  48  hours, 
and  you  will  then  be  enabled  to  bend  the  ivory  into 
any  required  form. 


TO   SEPARATE    THE   METALLIC    PORTION    FROM   GOLD 
AND   SILVER   LACE. 

IMMERSE  the  lace  for  a  short  time  in  nitric  acid. 


312  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


BLUEING   AND   GILDING   STEEL. 

THE  mode  employed  in  blueing  steel  is  merely  tc 
subject  it  to  heat.  The  dark  blue  is  produced  at  a 
temperature  of  600°,  the  full  blue  at  500°,  and  the 
blue  at  550°. 

Steel  may  be  gilded  by  the  following  process :  to 
a  solution  of  the  muriale  of  gold,  add  nearly  as 
much  sulphuric  ether.  The  ether  reduces  the  gold 
to  a  metallic  state  and  keeps  it  in  solution,  while  the 
muriatic  acid  separates,  deprived  of  its  gold,  and 
forms  a  distinct  fluid.  Put  the  steel  to  be  gilded 
into  the  ether,  which  speedily  evaporates,  depositing 
a  coat  of  gold  on  the  metal  by  dint  of  the  attraction 
between  them.  After  the  steel  has  been  immersed 
it  should  be  dipped  into  cold  water,  and  the  burnisher 
should  be  applied,  which  strengthens  its  adhesion, 
Figures,  flowers,  and  all  descriptions  of  ornaments 
and  devices,  may  be  drawn  on  the  steel  by  using  the 
ether  with  a  fine  camel-hair  pencil,  or  writing  pen. 


TO  HARDEN  STEEL  DIES.          313 


TO  HARDEN  STEEL  DIES. 

A  VESSEL  holding  200  gallons  of  water,  is  to  be 
placed  at  the  height  of  40  feet  above  the  room  in 
which  the  dies  are  to  be  hardened.  From  this  vessel 
the  water  is  conducted  through  a  pipe  of  one  inch 
and  a  quarter  in  diameter,  with  a  cock  at  the  bottom, 
and  nozzles  of  different  sizes  to  regulate  the  dia- 
meter of  the  jet  of  water.  Under  one  of  these 
place  the  heated  dies,  the  water  being  directed  on 
to  the  centre  of  the  upper  surface.  By  this  process 
the  die  is  hardened  in  a  way  as  best  to  sustain  the 
pressure  to  which  it  is  to  be  subjected ;  and  the 
middle  of  the  face,  which  by  the  old  process  was 
apt  to  remain  soft,  now  becomes  the  hardest  part. 
The  hardened  part  of  the  dies  so  managed,  were  it 
to  be  separated,  would  be  found  to  be  in  the  seg- 
ment of  a  sphere,  resting  in  the  lower  softer  part, 
as  in  a  dish,  the  hardness,  of  course,  gradually  do- 
creasing  as  you  descend  towards  the  foot.  Dies 
thus  hardened,  preserve  their  form  till  fairly  worn 
out. 


314         BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER. 


PORTABLE  GLUE. 

BOIL  one  pound  of  the  best  Russian  glue,  and 
strain.  Then  add  half  a  pound  of  brown  sugar,  and 
boil  thick.  When  cold,  the  compound  may  be  poured 
into  small  moulds,  and  afterwards  cut  into  pieces. 

This  glue  is  very  soluble  in  warm  water,  and  is 
particularly  useful  to  artists  for  fixing  their  drawing- 
paper  to  the  board. 


PREVENTION   OF   CORROSION. 

THE  best  means  of  preventing  corrosion  of  metals 
is  to  dip  the  articles  first  into  a  very  dilute  nitric 
acid,  to  immerse  them  afterwards  in  linseed  oil,  and 
to  allow  the  excess  of  oil  to  drain  off.  By  this  pro- 
cess metals  are  effectually  prevented  from  rust  or 
oxidation. 


CEMENT   AND    SOLUBLE   GLASS.  316 


CEMENT. 


Mix  ground  white  lead  with  as  much  finely-pow- 
dered red  lead  a»  will  make  it  **f  the  consistence  of 
soft  putty. 


SWU7BLE   GLASS. 

WHAT  is  called  soluble  glass  is  now  beginning  to 
come  into  use  as  a  covering  for  wood  and  other 
practical  purposes.  1*  IB  composed  of  15  parts  of 
powdered  quartz,  10  part*  of  potash,  and  1  part  of 
charcoal. 

These  are  melted  together,  worked  in  cold  water, 
and  then  boiled  with  5  parts  of  water,  in  which  it 
entirely  dissolves.  It  is  then  applied  to  wood-work, 
or  any  other  required  substance.  As  it  cools  it 
gelatinises,  and  dries  up  into  a  transparent,  cofaur- 
less  glass,  on  any  surface  to  which  it  has  berr  ip- 
plied.  It  renders  wood  nearly  i 


316  BRASS   AND   IKON   FOUNDER. 


JAPANNING. 

First.  Provide  yourself  with  a  small  muller  and 
stone,  to  grind  any  colour  that  you  may  require. 

Secondly.  Prepare  yourself  with  white  hard  var- 
nish, brown  varnish,  turpentine  varnish,  Japan  gold 
size,  and  spirit  of  turpentine,  which  you  may  keep 
in  separate  bottles  until  required. 

Thirdly.  Provide  yourself  with  flake  white,  red 
lead,  vermillion,  lake,  Prussian  blue,  king's  and 
patent  yellow,  orpiment,  spruce  and  brown  ochre, 
mineral  green,  verditer,  burnt  umber,  and  lamp- 
black. 

Observe  that  all  wood-work  must  be  prepared 
with  size,  and  some  coarser  material  mixed  with  it, 
in  order  to  fill  up  and  harden  the  grain  of  the  wood 
— such,  indeed,  as  may  best  suit  the  colour  intended 
to  be  laid  on — which  must  be  rubbed  smooth  with 
glass-paper  when  dry ;  but  in  case  of  accident  it  is 
seldom  necessary  to  resize  the  damaged  places 
unless  they  are  considerable. 

With  the  foregoing  colours  you  may  match  always 
any  one  in  use  for  japanning,  always  observing  to 
grind  your  colours  smooth  in  spirit  of  turpentme; 


JAPANNING.  317 

add  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  and  spirit  varnish, 
and  lay  it  carefully  on  with  a  camel's-hair  brush, 
then  varnish  with  brown  or  white  spirit  varnish, 
according  to  colour. 

For  a  black,  mix  up  a  little  size  and  lamp-black, 
and  it  will  bear  a  good  gloss  without  varnishing 
over.  To  imitate  black  rosewood,  a  black  ground 
must  be  given  to  the  wood,  after  which  take  some 
finely  levigated  red  lead,  mixed  up  as  before  directed, 
And  lay  on  with  a  flat,  stiff  brush,  in  imitation  of 
the  streaks  in  the  wood ;  after  which  take  a  small 
quantity  of  lake,  ground  fine,  and  mix  it  with  brown 
cpirit  varnish,  carefully  observing  not  to  have  more 
wlour  in  it  than  will  just  tinge  the  varnish ;  but 
should  it  happen  on  trial  to  be  still  too  red,  you 
may  easily  assist  it  with  a  little  umber,  ground  very 
fine,  with  which  pass  over  the  whole  of  the  work 
intended  to  imitate  black  rosewood,  and  it  will  have 
the  desired  effect.  If  the  work  be  done  by  a  good 
japanner,  according  to  the  foregoing  rules,  it  will, 
when  varnished  and  polished,  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished from  the  real  wood. 


318  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


TO   PRESERVE   POLISHED   STEEL  FROM   RUST. 

Mix  some  oil  with  caoutchouc;  melt  in  a  close 
vessel,  stirring  to  prevent  burning.  A  high  tem- 
perature will  be  required.  This  will  form  a  perfect 
air-proof  skin  over  the  surface,  which  may  very 
easily  be  removed  by  brushing  with  warm  oil  of 
turpentine. 


CEMENT  FOR  ATTACHING  METAL  TO   GLASS. 

TAKE  two  ounces  of  a  thick  solution  of  glue> 
and  mix  with  one  ounce  of  linseed  oil  varnish,  01 
three-quarters  of  an  ounce  of  Venice  turpentine. 
Boil  together,  agitating  until  the  mixture  becomes 
as  intimate  as  possible.  The  pieces  cemented  should 
be  fastened  together  for  the  space  of  forty -eight  or 
sixty  hours. 


VARNISHES.  319 


VARNISH   FOR   COLOURED   DRAWINGS. 

CANADA  balsam,  one  ounce ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1 . 
ounces.     Dissolve.     Size  the  drawings  first  with  & 
jelly  of  isinglass,  and  when  dry  apply  the  varnish, 
which  will  make  them  look  like  oil  paintings. 


JAPANNERS'   COPAL    VARNISH. 

TAKE  of  the  best  pale  African  copal,  seven  pounds ; 
fuse ;  add  two  quarts  of  clarified  linseed  oil.  Boil 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  remove  it  into  the  open 
air,  and  add  three  gallons  of  boiling  oil  of  turpen- 
tine. Mix  well,  then  strain  into  the  cistern,  and 
cover  up  immediately. 


SOFT   VARNISH. 


CALLOT'S  soft  varnish  for  etching: — linseed  oil, 
four  ounces ;  and  half  an  ounce  each  of  gum  benzoin 
and  white  vax.  Boil  to  two-thirds. 


320  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


HARD   VARNISH. 

CALLOT'S  hard  varnish  for  etching: — Take  four 
ounces  each  of  linseed  oil  and  mastic,  and  melt  to- 
gether. 


FLEXIBLE   VARNISH. 


FLEXIBLE  varnish  for  balloons,  &c. : — India-rubbei 
in  shavings,  one  ounce ;  mineral  napfha,  two  pounds. 
Digest  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  close  vessel  until  dis- 
solved, then  strain. 


FRENCH   POLISH. 

DISSOLVE  one  part  of  gum-mastic,  and  one  part 
of  gum-sandarach,  in  forty  parts  of  spirits  of  wine, 
and  then  add  three  parts  of  shell-lac.  This  process 
may  be  performed  by  putting  the  ingredients  into  a 
"oosely  corked  bottle,  and  then  placing  it  in  a  vessel 


VARNISHES.  821 

of  water  a  little  below  173°  Fahrenheit,  or  the  boil- 
ing point  of  spirits  of  wine,  until  the  solution  be 
effected. 


BRUNSWICK   BLACK. 

FOREIGN  asphaltum,  forty-five  pounds;  drying 
oil,  six  gallons ;  and  litharge,  six  pounds.  Boil  for 
two  hours,  then  add  dark  gum  amber  (fused),  eight 
pounds  ;  hot  linseed  oil,  two  gallons.  Boil  for  two 
hours  longer,  or  until  a  little  of  the  mass,  when 
cooled,  may  be  rolled  into  pills.  Then  withdraw 
the  heat,  and  afterwards  thin  down  with  twenty-five 
gallons  of  oil  of  turpentine.  Used  for  iron-work,  &c 


MORDANT  VARNISH. 


TAKE  one  ounce  of  mastic,  one  ounce  of  sanda- 
rach,  half  an  ounce  of  gum-gamboge,  and  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce  of  turpentine.  Dissolve  in  six  ounces 
of  spirits  of  turpentine. 


21 


822  BRASS   AND  IRON   FOUNDER. 


ANOTHER. 

PLACE  a  quantity  of  boiled  oil  in  a  pan,  and  subject 
it  to  a  strong  heat.  When  a  disengagement  of  black 
smoke  takes  place,  set  it  on  fire,  and  in  a  few  moments 
extinguish  it,  by  covering  over  the  pan.  Then  pour 
the  matter  while  heated  into  a  bottle,  previously 
warmed,  adding  to  it  a  little  oil  of  turpentine. 

ANOTHER. 

Mix  asphalte  and  dpying  oil,  diluted  with  oil  of 
turpentine.  For  bronzing,  or  very  pale  gilding. 

ANOTHER. 

TAKE  a  quantity  of  camphorated  copal  varnish, 
and  add  a  little  red  lead. 


ANOTHER. 

DISSOLVE  a  little  honey  in  thick  glue.  For  gild- 
ing, &c. 

SUPERIOR   QREEN   TRANSPARENT   VARNISH. 

THE  beautiful,  transparent  green  varnish  em- 
ployed to  give  a  fine  glittering  colour  to  gilt  or 
other  decorated  work,  may  be  prepared  as  follows  : 


VARNISHES.  323 

Grind  a  small  quantity  of  Chinese  blue  with  about 
double  the  quantity  of  finely  powderel  chromate  of 
potash,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  copal  varnish 
thinned  with  turpentine.  The  mixture  requires  the 
most  elaborate  grinding  or  incorporating,  otherwise 
it  will  not  be  transparent,  and  therefore  useless  for 
the  purpose  to  which  it  is  intended.  The  "  tone" 
of  the  colour  may  be  varied  by  an  alteration  in  the 
proportion  of  the  ingredients.  A  preponderance  of 
chromate  of  potash  causes  a  yellowish  shade  in  the 
green,  as  might  have  been  expected ;  and  vice  versa 
with  the  blue,  under  the  same  circumstances.  This 
coloured  varnish  will  produce  a  very  striking  effect 
in  japanned  goods,  paper-hangings,  &c.,  and  can  be 
made  at  a  very  cheap  rate. 


ETCHING   VAKNISH. 

TAKE  of  white  wax,  two  ounces ;  and  of  black 
and  Burgundy  pitch,  each  half  an  ounce.  Melt  to- 
gether, adding  by  degrees  two  ounces  of  powdered 
asphaltum.  Then  boil  until  a  drop  taken  out  on  a 
plate  will  break  when  cold,  by  being  bent  double 
two  or  three  times  between  the  fingers,  when  it  must 
he  poured  into  warm  water,  and  made  into  sn>all 
balls  for  use. 


324  BR^SS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER 


COLORING   BRASS   A   DEEP   BLUE. 

A  COLD  method  of  coloring  brass  a  deep  blue  is  as 
follows :  100  grammes  of  carbonate  of  copper  and 
750  grammes  of  ammonia  are  introduced  in  a  decan- 
ter, well  corked,  and  shaken  until  dissolution  is  ef- 
fected. There  are  then  added  150  cubic  centimeters 
of  distilled  water.  The  mixture  is  shaken  once 
more,  shortly  after  which  it  is  ready  for  use.  The 
liquid  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  in  firmly  closed 
bottles  or  in  glass  vessels,  with  a  large  opening,  the 
edges  of  which  have  been  subjected  to  emery  friction 
and  covered  by  plates  of  greased  glass.  When  the 
liquid  has  lost  its  strength,  it  can  be  recuperated  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  ammonia.  The  articles  to  be 
colored  should  be  perfectly  clean  ;  especial  care 
should  be  taken  to  clear  them  of  all  trace  of  grease. 
They  are  then  suspended  by  a  brass  wire  in  the 
liquid  in  which  they  are  entirely  immersed,  and  a  to- 
and-fro  movement  is  commuticated  to  them.  After 
the  expiration  of  two  or  three  minutes  they  are  taken 
from  the  bath,  washed  in  clean  water,  and  dried  in 
sawdust.  It  is  necessary  that  the  operation  be  con- 
ducted with  as  little  exposure  to  the  air  as  possible. 
Handsome  shades  are  only  obtained  in  the  case  of 


PATTERN-MAKING.  325 

brass  and  tombac — that  is  to  say,  copper  and  zi.ic 
alloys.  The  bath  cannot  be  utilized  foi  coloring 
bronze  (copper- tin),  argentine,  and  other  metallic 
alloys. 


ON  PATTERN-MAKING— CONTRACTION  OF  METALS,  ETC 

IT  is  necessary  to  make  patterns  in  some  degree 
larger  than  the  intended  castings,  to  allow  for  their 
contraction  in  cooling,  which  equals  from  about  the 
ninety-fifth  to  the  ninety-eighth  part  of  the  length, 
or  nearly  one  per  cent.  This  allowance  is  very 
easily  and  correctly  managed  by  the  employment 
of  a  contraction-rule,  which  is  made  like  a  sur- 
veyor's rod,  but  one-eighth  of  an  inch  longer  in 
every  foot  than  ordinary  standard  measures.  By 
the  employment  of  such  contraction-rules  every 
measurement  of  the  pattern  is  made  proportionally 
larger  without  any  trouble  of  calculation. 

When  a  wood  pattern  is  made,  from  which  an 
iron  pattern  is  to  be  made,  the  cast  being  intended 
to  serve  as  the  permanent  foundry  pattern,  as  there 
are  two  shrinkages  to  allow  for,  a  double  contrac- 
tion-rule is  employed,  or  one  the  length  of  which 
is  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  excess  in  every  foot. 
These  rules  are  particularly  important  in  setting 


326  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

out  alterations  in,  or  additions  to,  exising  ma 
chinery.  The  latter  is  measured  with  the  common 
rule,  and  the  new  patterns  are  set  out  to  the  same 
nominal  measures,  with  a  single  or  double  contrac- 
tion-rule, as  the  case  may  be — the  three  being  made 
in  some  respects  dissimilar,  to  avoid  confusion  IL 
their  use.  The  entire  neglect  of  contraction-rules 
incurs  additional  trouble  and  uncertainty.  The 
contraction  of  brass  is  nearly  three-sixteenths  of 
an  inch  in  every  foot,  but  from  the  small  size  of 
brass  castings  the  contraction-rule  is  less  required 
for  them,  as  the  differences  may  be  easily  allowed 
for  without  it.  Iron  castings  weigh  about  fourteen 
times  as  much  as  the  ordinary  deal  and  fir  patterns 
from  which  they  are  made — that  being  nearly  the 
ratio  of  the  specific  gravities  of  those  materials. 

In  reference  to  the  qualities  of  Iron,  it  may  be 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  same  mixture  of  iron 
will  be  found  to  differ  very  much  according  to  the 
size  of  the  objects  in  which  it  is  cast.  Iron  which 
in  a  plate  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick  may  be  quite 
brittle  and  hard,  will  mostly  be  of  good,  soft,  and 
useful  quality  in  a  stout  bar,  or  plate  of  two  or 
three  inches  thick.  Thick  castings  are  necessarily 
slow  in  cooling,  and  are  seldom  very  hard  unless 
intentionally  made  so. 


CONDUCTING   HEAT.  327 

Between  the  extremes  (say  three  parts  oi  pig- 
iron  to  one  of  old,  or  three  parts  of  old  iron  to  one 
of  pig-iron),  various  qualities  may  be  selected.  In 
castings  for  machinery,  the  general  aim  is  to  obtain 
a  strong,  sound,  and  tough  iron.  Mixtures  of  this 
nature  which  are  used  for  iron  ordnance,  are  called 
gun-metal  amongst  the  gun-founders. 


CONDUCTING   HEAT  OF   BRASS  AND  IRON. 

THE  power  of  conducting  heat  is  considerably 
tess,  in  red-hot  iron,  than  in  copper  and  brass ;  and 
therefore  the  moulds  for  the  latter  require  to  be  in 
a  drier  condition  than  those  which  may  be  used  for 
iron  But  in  either  case,  the  presence  of  superfluous 
moisture  is  always  attended  with  some  danger  to 
the  individual,  as  well  as  to  the  work.  Iron  foun- 
ders may  use  their  moulds  with  safety  when  sensi- 
bly more  moist  than  is  admissible  for  brass  and 
copper  castings.  It  is  confirmatory  of  the  fact,  that 
the  more  dense  the  mould,  the  drier  it  must  be — as 
the  sand  used  by  iron-founders  is  also  coarser,  and 
therefore  more  porous  than  that  employed  by 
brass-founders. 


828 


BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


VARIETIES   OF   TOMBAC. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Copper... 
Zinc  
Lead  

82-0 
18-0 
1-5 

82 
18 
3 

82-3 
17-5 

SO 
17 

85 
15 

85-3 
14-7 

86 
14 

90-0 
7-9 
1-6 

92 
8 

97-8 
2-2 

Tin  

3-0 

1 

0-2 

8 

t'ce 

104-5 

104 

100-0 

100 

100 

100-0 

100 

99-5 

100 

100-0 

Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  are  for  making  gilt  articles ;  4,  French 
mixture  for  sword-handles,  &c. ;  5,  Okar  metal  near  Goslar, 
in  the  Hartz  ;  6,  Yellow  tombac  for  Parisian  gilt  ornaments  ; 
7,  Hanoverian ;  8,  Chryso  chalk  ;  9,  Paris  tombac ;  and  10 
the  red  tombac  of  Vienna. 


ON  SAND-CORE  MOULDING,  BLACKENING,  ETC. 

AMONGST  the  great  variety  of  work  denominated 
green-sand  moulding,  much  and  varied  contrivance 
is  displayed  in  the  structure  of  the  moulds.  In 
particular,  the  management  of  cores  is  a  matter  of 
very  considerable  importance,  and  the  malformation 
of  them  is  a  prolific  source  of  failure  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sound  castings. 

Cores  are  especially  useful  for  forming  vacancies 
in  castings.  Their  forms  may  be  long,  and  pro- 
portionably  small  in  diameter  or  winding,  and 


ON    SAND-CORE    MOULDING,  ETC.  329 

otherwise  intricate ;  and  seeing  that  they  are  neces- 
sarily surrounded  by  the  metal  when  cast,  they 
ought  to  have,  as  much  as  may  be,  the  qualities  of 
firmness  of  substance  and  openness  of  pores.  Cores 
are  commonly  composed  of  roek-sand  and  sea-sand. 
The  former  having  a  proportion  of  clay  in  its 
composition,  to  which  it  owes  its  powerful  cohe- 
siveness  when  dried,  serves  very  well  for  short 
cores  that  rest  on  the  green  sand  at  both  ends,  as 
open  communication  with  it  is  thus  afforded  for 
the  free  escape  of  the  air  in  the  interstices  of  the 
cores. 

But  when  rock-sand  is  used  for  cores  of  a  con- 
siderable length  (which,  of  course,  are  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  the  metal,  except  the  small  imbed- 
ded portions  at  the  extremities,  by  which  alone  the 
air  can  escape),  it  requires  to  be  moderated  by  the 
admixture  of  free-sand,  as  a  counteractant  to  the 
clay.  The  clay  communicates  the  necessary  cohe- 
siveness  to  the  material  of  the  core ;  the  sand,  on 
the  contrary,  loose  and  open,  renders  it  less  binding 
and  more  porous.  Free-sand  alone  is  also  employed 
in  the  construction  of  confined  cores,  that  they  may 
afterward  be  easily  extracted,  as  the  sand  has 
naturally  no  power  of  cohesion. 

Wanting  cohesivcness,  it  mu^t  be  tempered  to  a 


330  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

proper  consistency  by  the  addition  of  clay  anj 
water,  yeast,  flour,  or  the  refuse  of  pease-meal,  used 
for  light  flat  moulding  purposes.  In  the  use  of 
the  latter  materials,  it  must  be  accurately  propor- 
tioned to  the  sand  with  which  it  is  mixed.  The 
clay-water  is,  in  ordinary  cases,  made  use  of  as  a 
cement,  and  the  yeast  only  in  very  particular  cir- 
cnmstances.  For  large  compact  masses  of  core 
the  common  green  sand  may  be  used. 

The  longer  cores  are  stiffened  by  iron  wires  ana 
small  rods,  which  are  bent,  if  necessary,  to  the  form 
of  the  cores.  These  rods  are  dipped  in  clay- wash, 
and  enveloped  in  the  core  in  the  progress  of  its 
formation,  and  are  afterward  extracted  from  the 
casting.  The  cores  of  considerable  length  are 
pierced  longitudinally  by  wires  for  the  "  escape  of 
the  air ;"  or  in  cases  where  this  is  impracticable,  on 
account  of  bends  or  angles  in  the  core,  a  piece  of 
string  is  laid  in  the  sand  alongside  the  stiffening 
wires,  which  is  afterward  drawn  out,  when  the  core 
is  dry,  leaving  its  perforation  behind  it.  With  all 
these  precautions,  securing  the  strength  of  the  cores 
and  letting  off  the  air,  your  castings  have  every 
chance  of  being  good,  and  free  from  blow-holes 
When  the  bearings  of  cores  at  the  extremities  are 
considered  unfiA  for  steadying  them,  they  are  fur- 


ON    SAND- CORE   MOULDING,  ETC.  331 

ther  sustained  by  staples  struck  into  the  sand  at 
several  places  in  their  length,  and  projecting  above 
it  just  as  much  as  the  thickness  of  metal,  the  core 
is  placed  upon  them,  and  sustained  steadily  in  its 
place.  The  staples  are,  of  course,  buried  in  the 
casting,  and  the  projecting  points  outside  cut  off  in 
the  course  of  dressing  it.  Cbaplets  are  used  to  bear 
up  cores  having  plain  surfaces.  Another  set  of 
chaplets,  or  staples,  are  placed  in  the  cope,  and  well 
secured  at  the  back,  when  the  flask  is  closed,  firmly 
fixed,  and  in  contact  with  the  upper  half  of  the 
core.  It  is  thus  prevented  from  floating  off  ita 
seat  when  immersed  in  the  fluid  metal,  and  pre- 
vented from  springing.  This  is  a  matter  of  greater 
moment  than  the  mere  sustaining  of  the  core  from 
below,  as  will  be  apparent  on  considering  the  great 
difference  of  specific  gravities  of  sand,  dry  loam, 
and  iron  or  brass. 

In  this  case,  the  upward  effective  pressure  of  the 
fluid  metal  upon  the  core  is  proportional  to  the 
difference  of  their  specific  gravities,  which,  being 
so  much  in  favor  of  metal,  the  pressure  upward, 
sustained  by  the  chaplets,  cannot  be  much  less  than 
the  weight  of  a  body  of  metal  of  the  same  bulk  as 
the  core,  for  the  support  of  which  they  are  des- 
tined in  brass-founding  particularly,  great  care 


332  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

should  be  taken  that  the  staples  and  chaplets  arc 
sufficiently  strong.  Should  they  be  too  slightly 
made,  they  will  bend  or  melt  before  the  hot  metal, 
and  prove  entirely  useless.  This  is  too  often  neg- 
lected. 

Ordinary  black-wash  for  cores  consists  of  oak 
charcoal,  powdered,  and  a  little  clay,  diluted  with 
horse-dung  water.  Blackening  for  moulds  is  often 
composed  of  finely  ground  plumbago,  mixed  with 
A  little  charcoal,  ihe  whole  diluted  with  a  solution 
of  the  soluble  parts  of  horse-dung.  This  is  fre- 
quently mixed  with  pease-meal,  or  other  meal,  glue, 
and  extracts  from  the  refuse  of  tanneries.  But  all 
these  compositions  are  more  or  less  too  close,  and 
cause  a  dull  surface  to  the  cast.  The  first  is  the 
best,  if  applied  not  too  much  diluted.  Blackening, 
or  a  coating  of  carbon,  will  prevent  the  burning  of 
the  sand,  and  consequent  roughness  of  the  casting, 
as  it  fills  the  pores  of  the  sand.  A  little  plumbago 
mixed  with  it  makes  it  more  refractory  still,  and  is 
very  desirable  where  a  great  body  of  metal  sur- 
rounds a  small  core. 

One  part  of  clay  mixed  with  nine  parts  of  free- 
sand,  or  any  other  pure  sand,  is  considered   suffi 
ciently  strong  for  core  sands.    Still,  these  propertie.s 
depend  very  much  on  the  nature  of  the  sand  and 


ON    SAND-CORE   MOULDING,  ETC.  333 

the  adhesiveness  of  the  clay,  and  also  what  kind 
of  cores  are  to  be  made  from  it — large  and  compli- 
cated cores  being  made  stronger  than  small  ones. 

The  various  kinds  of  good  moulding-sand  em- 
ployed in  foundries  for  casting  iron  or  brass,  have 
been  found  to  be  of  an  almost  uniform  chemicai 
composition,  varying  in  grain  or  the  aggregate 
form  only.  It  contains  between  93  and  96  parts 
silex,  or  grains  of  sand,  and  from  3  to  6  parts  of 
clay,  and  a  little  oxide  of  iron  in  each  100  parts 
Moulding-sand  which  contains  lime,  magnesia,  and 
other  oxides  of  metal,  is  not  applicable,  particu- 
larly for  the  casting  of  iron  or  brass.  Such  sand 
is  generally  either  too  weak  or  too  close — will  not 
stand  or  retain  its  form,  or  it  will  cause  the  metai 
to  boil  through  its  closeness. 

In  practice,  different  kinds  of  castings  require 
different  kinds  of  sand  for  the  purpose  of  inouid 
ing,  which  will   firnish  the   subject  for  another 
article. 


334  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 


ON  WASHING  SWEEPINGS,  ASHES,  ETC.,  FROM  BRA.SS 
FOUNDRY  FURNACES — GILDERS'  AND  JEWELLERS' 
WORKSHOPS — AND  PLACES  WHERE  METALLURGIC 
OPERATIONS  ARE  CARRIED  ON. 

THE  clinkers,  ashes,  or  cinderp.  which  remain  in 
furnaces  after  metallurgic  operations  have  been  com- 
pleted, may  appear  to  be  among  the  most  useless 
things.  Not  so,  however.  If  they  contain  any 
metal,  there  are  men  who  will  ferret  it  out,  by  some 
means  or  other.  Not  many  years  since,  the  ashes 
of  the  coal  or  coke  used  in  brass  and  bronze  fur- 
naces, were  carried  away,  after  picking,  as  rubbish. 
But  shrewd  people  have  detected  a  good  deal  of 
Volatilized  copper,  &c.,  mixed  up  therewith,  and 
tne  brass  founder  can  now  find  a  market  for  his 
ashes  as  an  inferior  kind  of  ore ;  or  which  is  still 
more  preferable,  in  case  of  slackness  of  work,  can 
cleanse  and  smelt  them  himself;  which  every  brass 
founder  can  (or  at  least,  ought  to  know  how  to)  do. 
It  needs  hardly  to  be  stated,  that  all  sorts  of  filings 
and  raspings,  cuttings  and  clippings,  borings  and 
turnings,  and  odds  and  ends  in  the  metallic  form, 
are  all  available  for  re-melting,  whatsoever  the 
may  be ;  all  is  grist  that  comes  to  this  mil1.. 


ON   WASHING    SWEEPINGS,  ETC.  335 

If  the  metal  be  a  cheap  one,  it  will  not  pay  to  ex- 
tricate a  stray  per  centage  from  ashes  and  clinkers; 
but  if  it  be  one  of  the  most  costly  metals,  not  only 
are  all  scraps  and  ashes  and  skimmings  preserved, 
.but  particles  are  .sought  for  in  a  way  that  may  well 
astonish  those  to  whom  the  subject  is  new. 

Take  gold  as  an  example.  There  are  dealers  who 
sedulously  wait  upon  gilders  and  jewellers,  at  inter- 
vals, to  buy  up  every  thing  (be  it  what  it  may) 
which  has  gold  in  or  upon  it.  Old  and  useless  gilt 
frames  are  bought ;  they  are  burnt,  and  the  ashes  so 
treated  as  to  yield  up  all  their  gold.  The  fragments 
and  dust  of  gold,  which  arise  during  gilding,  are 
bought  and  refined.  The  leather  cushion  which 
the  gilder  uses,  is  bought,  when  too  old  for  use,  for 
the  sake  of  the  gold  particles  which  insinuate  them- 
selves into  odd  nooks  and  corners.  The  old  leather 
apron  of  the  jeweller  is  bought.  It  is  a  rich  prize ; 
for  in  spite  of  its  dirty  look,  it  possesses  very  aurif- 
erous attractions.  The  sweepings  of  the  floor  of  a 
jeweller's  workshop  are  bought,  and  there  is  proba- 
bly no  broom,  the  use  of  which  is  stipulated  for 
with  more  strictness,  than  that  with  which  such  a 
floor  is  swept.  In  short,  there  are  in  this  world, 
(and  at  no  time  so  much  as  at  present)  a  set  of  very 
useful  people,  who  may  be  designated  as  maLufac 


836  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

taring  scavengers.  They  clear  away  refuse,  which 
would  else  encumber  the  ground,  and  they  put 
money  into  the  pockets  both  of  buyers  and  sellers , 
they  do  effectually  create  a  something,  out  of  a  com- 
mercial nothing.  It  is  essentially  necessary,  how- 
ever, for  the  brass  founder  (should  he  employ  a 
smelter  of  metals  to  wash  his  foundry  ashes,  his 
own  man  being  too  busily  engaged  in  the  moulding 
shop)  to  have  them  cleansed  and  smelted  on  his  own 
premises,  as  he  will  effect  a  considerable  saving 
thereby,  beside  have  a  very  superior  metal,  than 
if  washed  off  the  premises  and  returned  after  smelt- 
ing. The  reason  is  obvious:  crucibles  generally 
break  before  the  tin,  zinc,  or  lead  is  added  to  the 
copper,  which  is  always  melted  first ;  this  being  the 
case,  the  smelter  has  an  opportunity  (and  rarely  fails 
to  advantage  by  it)  of  reducing  the  alloy  with  the 
inferior  metals,  at  the  cost  of  the  employer.  There 
is  great  room  for  trickery  here,  and  I  have  known 
brass  founders  themselves  (and  clever  ones  at  that), 
who  could  not  detect  the  imposition.  Every  brass 
founder  ought  to  be  capable  of  washing  and  smelt- 
ing his  own  refuse  and  shop  dirt.  This  may  be 
done  (as  before  stated)  at  any  period  of  the  year, 
and  find  him  employment  when  he  might  otherwise 
have  nothing  to  do  in  the  moulding  shop,  as  well 


FLUXES.  337 

»s  save  his  employer  from  laying  out  cash  for  that 
whi«-h  he  has  at  home,  if  only  gathered  together. 


CORNISH  REFINING  FLUX. 

DEFLAGRATE,  and  afterward  pulverize,  two  parts 
of  nitre,  and  one  part  of  tartar.  The  following  fluxes 
answer  the  purpose  very  well,  provided  the  ores  be 
deprived  of  all  their  sulphur,  or  if  they  contain 
much  earthy  matter;  because  in  the  latter  case 
they  unite  with  them,  and  convert  them  into  a  thin 
glass,  but  if  any  quantity  of  sulphur  remain,  these 
fluxes  unite  with  it,  and  form  a  liver  of  sulphur, 
which  has  the  power  of  destroying  a  portion  of  all 
the  metals ;  consequently,  the  assay  must  be,  under 
such  circumstances,  very  inaccurate. .  Limestone, 
feldspar,  fluor-spar,  quartz,  sand-slate,  and  slugs, 
are  all  used  as  fluxes.  Iron  ores,  on  account  of  the 
argillaceous  earth  they  contain,  require  calcareous 
additions ;  and  the  copper  ores,  rather  slugs,  or  vit- 
rescent  stones,  than  calcareous  earth. 


CRUDE,  OR  WHITE  FLUX. 

ONE  part  nitre,  to  two  parts  tartar,  mixed  well 

together. 
22 


338         BRASS  AND  IRON  FOUNDER. 
BLACK  FLUX. 

THE  above  flux  detonates  by  means  of  kin  lied 
charcoal,  and  if  the  detonation  be  effected  in  a  mor- 
tar slightly  covered,  the  smoke  that  arises  unites 
with  the  alkalized  nitre  and  the  tartar,  and  renders 
it  black. 


CORNISH  REDUCING  FLUX. 

Mix  well  together,  10  ounces  of  tartar,  3  ounces 
and  6  drachms  of  nitre,  and  3  ounces  and  1  drachm 
of  borax. 


IMITATION  SILVER  METAL. 

4J  pounds  tin,  J  pound  bismuth,  J  pound  anti- 
mony, J  pound  lead.  This  metal  retains  its  silvery 
brilliancy  to  the  last. 


ON  CASE-HARDENING  IRON. 

CASE-HARDENING  iron  is  done  by  reducing  the 
prussiate  of  potash  to  a  paste,  in  a  little  water 
smearing  over  your  article,  and  heating  it  in  the 
fire  to  a  dull  red  heat,  and  then  dip  in  cold  water. 


VARNISHES — GUM   SOLUTIONS — BRASS.         339 
VARNTSH  FOR  IRON. 

THE  best  varnish  for  iron  is  red  lead,  laid  on. 
first  with  a  very  thin  coat,  left  to  dry,  then  give 
one  or  two  more  coats. 


VARNISH  FOR  POLISHED  IRON. 

USE  common  gum  copal  varnish.    You  may  mix 
*  little  oil  in  it. 


TO  PRESERVE  GUM  ARABIC  SOLUTIONS. 

A  FEW  drops  of  alcohol,  or  any  essential  oil,  will 
preserve  a  quart  of  the  mucilage  of  "  gum  Arabic" 
or  "gum  Tragacanth"  from  spoiling.  A  small  quan 
tity  of  dissolved  alum  will  preserve  flour  paste. 


BEST    COMPOSITION    OF    BRASS    FOR    ROLLING    AND 
FORGING. 

ANY   proportion   between   the   extremes   of   50 
parts  copper  and  50  parts  zinc,  or  62  copper  and 


340  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

38  zinc,  will  roll  and  work  at  the  red  hiat.  The 
very  best  composition,  however,  is  60  parts  copper 
to  40  parts  zinc. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  FLUXING  OF  METALS. 

METALS  are  contained  in  the  ores,  in  most  cases 
as  compounds,  and  if  it  is  the  object  to  separate 
them,  we  are  to  put  such  matter  in  contact  with 
them,  as  will  deprive  the  metal  of  its  compound. 
If  a  silicate  of  iron  is  melted,  we  do  not  precipitate 
iron  by  adding  carbonate  of  soda,  or  caustic  lime,  to 
the  fluid  mass ;  this  addition  merely  increases  the 
fluidity  of  the  slag,  without  producing  any  metaL 
But  if  we  add  sodium,  the  oxide  of  iron  will  be  de 
prived  of  its  oxygen,  and  form  metal.  Carbon  ha;» 
more  affinity  for  oxygen  than  metal,  in  the  high  heat 
of  a  melted  silicate.  If,  therefore,  we  add  carbon  to 
the  melted  silicate  of  iron,  some  iron  is  produced. 
In  all  cases,  the  metal  requires  a  slimy,  glassy  sub- 
stance coating,  to  protect  it  against  the  influence  of 
oxygen,  when  exposed  in  small  particles  to  that 
influence. 

Almost  all  metals  burn  more  readily  than  carbon 
— gold,  the  platina  metals,  and  silver,  in  some  meas- 


TINNING    COPPER    AND   BRASS.  341 

are,  excepted.  If,  therefore,  we  desire  to  obtain  a 
meta!,  we  must  produce  a  slag,  which  protects  it, 
and  at  the  same  time  admits  of  its  coagulation.  I 
would  strongly  recommend  the  founder  to  use  as 
general  flux  (for  copper  foundings,  particularly 
where  large  masses  of  copper  have  to  be  melted, 
prior  to  adding  his  tin  and  zinc),  sal.  enixum  (the 
refuse  from  aqua-fortis),  to  be  obtained  at  most  of  the 
chemical  works,  at  a  trifling  cost.  I  know  of  nothing 
to  equal  it.  This,  with  charcoal,  surpasses  every 
thing  else. 


TINNING  CAST  COPPER,    OR   BRASS. 

CAST-IRON  may  be  tinned  by  a  solution  of  tin, 
as  muriate  of  tin,  mixed  with  an  equal  part  of 
sal-ammoniac,  if  brushed  over  the  metal,  will  highly 
further  the  operation  of  tinning;  i.  e.,  make  a  solu- 
tion tin,  by  dissolving  oxide  of  tin  (tin  putty)  in 
potash  ley — adding  to  the  saturated  solution  some 
tin-shavings  or  filings.  Make  this  hot  as  possible ; 
place  in  your  brass  or  copper,  and  they  will  be 
tinned  in  a  few  seconds. 


342 


BRASS   AND    JRON   FOUNDER. 


The  following  table  of  experiments  on  the  teiiaci 
ties  of  metals,  is  given  with  the  results,  and  the 
experimenters'  names. 


Oast  copper, 
Hammered  copper,  . 
Sheet  copper, 
Wire  copper, 
Wire  platina, 
Cast  silver, 
Wire    " 
Cast  gold,      . 
Wire    " 

Hard  gun  metal, 
Pine  yellow  brass,     . 
Cast  tin, 
Wire  tin, 
Cast-iron,  No.  1, 
Cast-iron,  No.  2, 
Cast-iron,  No.  3,*      . 


In  tons,  2240  Ibs. 

,.-'•   8-4        .. 
.       15-0 
. .       21-0 
,.       27-0 
..       17-0 
.       18-0       ... 
,.       17-0 

9-0       >, 
14-0 
,.       16-0 

8-0 

2-0        .. 

3-0 

..      6to7|     .. 
. .      6  to  8 
. .      6  to  9f 


Experimenters 
Sir  J.  Rennie. 

Kingston. 
Guyton. 

M 

« 
« 
« 

Sir  J.  Rennie. 


Hodgkinson. 
Hodgkinson. 
Hodgkinson. 


The  above  tests  are  on  bars  one  inch  square. 


*  The  strongest  quality  of  cast-iron,  is  a  Scotch  iron 
known  as  the  '•  Devon  Hot  Blast,"  No.  3.  Its  tenacity  is 
9f  tons  per  square  inch.  Its  resistance  to  compression  is 
65  do.  The  experiments  of  Major  Wade,f  on  the  gun-iron 
at  West  Point  foundry,  and  at  Boston,  give  to  us  results  as 
high  as  10  to  16  tons,  throughout,  and  on  small  cast  bars  as 
high  as  17  tons. 

t  Strength  and  other  Properties  of  Metals  for  Cannon.  4to,  Phila- 
delphia: H.  C.  Baird.  1856. 


TIN   AND   ZINC.  343 

ON   REDUCING   COPPER   WITH   WHITE   ARSENIC. 

IN  reducing  copper  scraps  with  white  arsenic, 
for  buttons,  ornaments,  candlesticks,  clock  dials, 
figures,  &c.,  &c.,  to  give  them  the  color  of  silver 
the  whole  should  be  brought  down  under  a  flux  of 
common  salt.  The  metal  is  very  highly  poisonous, 
and  should  not  in  any  case  be  used  for  cooking 
utensils.  Arsenic  being  more  fusible  and  brittle, 
is  much  used  in  shot  factories,  in  the  proportion  of 
1J  Ibs.  arsenic  to  500  Ibs.  of  lead  for  small  shot, 
3  Ibs.  of  arsenic  to  500  lead  for  large  shot. 


TIN   AND   ZINC. 

TIN  and  zinc  will  waste  more  than  copper  in 
re-melting  metals.  To  prevent  this  as  much  as 
possible,  a  flux  of  potash  and  soda,  freely  mixed 
with  charcoal,  in  the  proportion  of  two  ounces  to 
the  hundred  pounds  of  metal,  should  be  added  im- 
mediately after  the  mass  is  melted,  to  prevent  oxi- 
dation, and  loss  of  strength  and  beauty.  The 
quicker  the  metals  are  reduced  under  a  good  flux, 
and  cast  into  work,  the  more  perfect  will  be  the 
crystallization  and  homogenity.  If  zinc  is  to  be 
added  after  the  crucible  is  taken  from  the  fire  (in 
casting  brass  work),  it  is  best  to  introduce  it  in  the 
form  of  yellow  brass. 


344  BRASS   AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

TIN  AND   IRON. 

EIGHT  ounces  of  iron  to  six  ounces  of  tin,  make 
a  beautiful  composition,  resembling  steel  both  in 
lustre  and  hardness.  A  less  proportion  of  tin  still 
:ulds  to  the  hardness  and  brilliancy  of  iron. 


COPPER,    TIN,   AND   IRON   ALLOY. 

LET  tin-plate  scraps  be  melted  with  block-tin 
under  a  flux  of  nitre,  and  poured  out,  when  melted, 
together.  The  metals  would  not  readily  combine 
otherwise.  Thus  the  Spaniards  and  Chinese  cast 
excellent  bells,  of  the  following  composition : 

Copper     ....     74  pounds. 

Tin 25 

Iron 1 

100-0 


CORINTHIAN  BRONZE.  SYRACUSE  BRONZE. 

90-0  Copper.  82-25  Copper. 

7-0  Tin.  17-50  Zinc. 

3-0  Zinc.  25  Tin. 


100-0  100-00 


WHITE   LACQUER. 


345 


SHIP-NAILS  COMPOSITION,  STRONG  AND  DURABLE. 

10  Pounds  copper,  8  Ibs.  zinc,  and  1  Ib.  iron. 

CHINESE  WHITE   METALS. 


No.  1.                       No.  2.                      No.  3. 

Copper,  55-0 

50-0 

62-0  Copper. 

Zinc,       17-0 

25-0 

19-0  Zinc. 

Nickel,  23-0 

25-0 

14-0  Nickel. 

Iron,         3-0 

No  iron. 

2-J  Cobalt. 

2-}  Iron. 

QQ    A 

•mn  n 

inn  A 

No.  4. 

78-0  Copper,  4-0  nickel,  3-f  5  zinc. 

Add  one-fourth  part  of  zinc  to  No.  4  metal  for  soldering 
the  four  compositions. 


FENTON'S  ANTI-FRICTION  METAL. 

7J  parts  grain  tin, 
7}  parts  purified  zinc, 
1    part  antimony. 


TO   MAKE   WHITE   LACQUER. 

TAKE  spirits  of  wine  (highly  rectified)  one  pint, 
which  divide  into  4  parts    Then  mix  one  part  with 


346  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

half  an  ounce  of  "gum  mastic,"  in  a  phial  bj 
itself;  one  part  spirits  and  half  an  ounce  of  "gurn 
sandarach"  in  another  phial ;  one  part  spirits  and 
half  an  ounce  of  the  whitest  parts  of  "gum  Benja- 
min." Then  mix  and  temper  to  your  mind.  No 
rule  can  further  instruct  you,  unless  the  quality  of 
the  gums  and  spirits  could  be  ascertained.  It 
would  not  be  amiss  to  add  a  very  small  piece  of 
"  white  rosin,"  or  clear  "  Venice  turpentine,"  in  the 
mastic  bottle ;  it  will  assist  in  giving  a  gloss.  If 
your  varnish  should  prove  strong  and  thick,  add 
clear  spirits;  if  too  hard,  pour  from  the  mastic 
bottle ;  if  too  soft,  a  little  from  the  sandarach  or 
Benjamin.  When  you  have  brought  it  to  a  proper 
temper  and  ready  for  use,  warm  the  plate  on  a  hot 
heater,  and  with  a  camel's  hair  brush  dipped  in  the 
varnish,  stroke  it  quickly  over  until  no  shade* 
appear. 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS.  347 

ON   THE   STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS 

BY    C.  A.  LEE,   C.  E. 

ALL  solid  bodies  are  proved  to  be  possessed  of 
certain  general  properties,  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  the  capability  of  offering 
resistance  to  forces  tending  to  change  the  relative 
position  of  their  particles.  It  is  this  that  it  is 
proposed  to  discuss. 

There  are  different  hypotheses  as  to  the  ultimate 
arrangement  of  the  particles  of  bodies,  but  for 
estimating  their  strength  it  is  customary  to  sup- 
pose them  to  be  made  up  of  fibres  running  parallel 
to  the  length  of  the  body — which  fibres  are  more 
or  less  elastic,  and  capable  of  being  extended  or 
compressed  within  a  certain  limit,  which  is  called 
the  "limit  of  elasticity."  The  amount  of  compres- 
sion or  extension  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
force  applied,  and  to  the  length  of  the  piece,  and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  transverse  section.  It 
must  be  understood,  however,  that  these  changes 
of  form  are  very  minute,  depending  on  the  nature 
of  the  material  in  question.  Moreover,  the  same 
force  will  produce  equal  extensions  and  compres- 
sions in  the  same  piece.  Suppos.0  we  take  a  bar 


348  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

of  iron  and  bend  it — it  is  evident  that  the  fibres 
on  the  convex  side  are  lengthened  while  those  on 
the  concave  side  are  shortened.  It  is  the  natural 
elasticity  of  these  fibres  that  causes  the  bar  to 
spring  back  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  If  the 
bar  is  bent  so  much,  and  consequently  the  fibres 
extended  and  compressed  so  much  as  to  exceed  the 
limit  of  elasticity,  the  bar  will  not  return  fully  to 
its  original  form,  but  will  take  what  is  called  a 
permanent  "  set."  When  a  piece  is  submitted  to  a 
strain  sufficient  to  give  it  a  permanent  set,  it  will 
from  that  time,  if  the  force  is  continued,  undergo  a 
gradual  yielding,  until  finally  it  gives  way.  This 
gradual  yielding  sometimes  takes  months  and  years 
to  be  sensible ;  but  experiments  have  proved  that 
it  does  take  place.  After  the  natural  elasticity  is 
once  destroyed,  the  piece,  if  the  charge  is  con- 
tinued, keeps  growing  weaker.  It  is  thus  seen 
that  in  practice  it  is  absolutely  out  of  the  question 
to  submit  materials  to  a  greater  strain  than  that 
corresponding  to  the  limit  of  elasticity,  and  it  should 
never  ordinarily  exceed  from  one  half  to  three 
quarters  of  this  limit.  There  will  be  given,  farther 
on,  practical  rules  for  guidance  in  this  respect. 

There  are  several  species   of  strains  to  which 
materials  may  be  subjected — compression,  exten- 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS.  349 

si  on,  torsion,  transversal  strain,  and  detrusioh,  or 
where  the  force  acts  at  right-angles  to  the  fibres. 

When  a  solid  is  subjected  to  a  strain  sufficient 
to  cause  rupture,  either  by  crushing  or  extension, 
it  is  proved  by  experiment  that  the  force  necessary 
to  produce  this  effect  is  directly  proportional  to 
the  transverse  section  of  the  body — that  is,  to  the 
area  of  the  section.  There  will  be  found,  in  the 
Table,  the  ultimate  resistance  of  different  kinds  of 
materials  to  extension  and  compression ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  these  experiments  were 
made  on  fair,  sound  specimens,  and  under  favora- 
ble circumstances,  and  that  the  pieces  subjected  to 
compression  were  but  once  and  a  half  their  base 
in  height.  When  the  specimens  exceeded  six  times 
their  base,  they  gave  way  by  bending. 

Explanation  of  the  Table,  No.  1. — The  first  column 
gives  the  different  materials.  The  second  gives  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  inch  or  foot  of  each,  in  pounds. 
The  third  gives  the  weight  necessary  to  rupture, 
by  extension,  a  piece  one  inch  square.  The  fourth 
gives  the  same  with  regard  to  compression.  The 
fifth  and  sixth  give  the  limits  which  should  not  be 
exceeded,  in  practical  applications,  in  pounds,  per 
square  men  of  section. 


350 


BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


MATERIAL. 

Weight  of  a  cubic  foot, 
in  pounds. 

Ultimate  resistance  to 
extension  per  square 
inch  of  section. 

Ultimate  resistance  to 
compression  per  square 
inch  of  section. 

Limit  which  should  not 
be  exceeded  in  prac 
tice  —Extension. 

Limit  which  should  not 
be  exceeded  in  prac- 
tice.— Com  pression. 

Ash  (English)  

47.5 

17000 

9000 

1000 

1000 

Beech    (do.)     

43.8 

11000 

12000 

u 

Box  

62.5 

20000 

12000 

H 

Elm  

33.8 

5800 

10000 

(f 

Fir  (New  England). 

34.4 

12000 

tf 

Fir  (Riga)  

47.0 

12600 

(f 

Larch 

33  8 

7000 

4000 

tt 

Locust  

59.5 

20500 

(( 

Oak  (English)..  

50.0 

12000 

8000 

H 

Oak  (Canadian)     

54  5 

12000 

5000 

i( 

Oak  (Dantzic)  

47.5 

14500 

7000 

(( 

Pine  (pitch) 

41  2 

10500 

6700 

(( 

« 

Pine  (red)  

41.3 

10000 

7500 

it 

tt 

Teak  

47.0 

15000 

12000 

M 

« 

IRON, 

Bar  1  inch  square  (Welch).. 
Two  inch  round  bar  
Russian  1  inch  round  bar... 
Swedish  1  inch  square  bar- 
American  bar  iron  

Weight 
of  a  cu- 
bic inch, 

in  Ibi 

0.281 

« 

tt 

« 

58000 
59000 
53000 
58000 
48000 

7000U 

H 

(l 
« 

10000 

• 

tt 
tt 

15000 
« 
tt 

(t 
u 

>« 

53000 

tt 

tt 

(t 

"          hammer  hardened.. 
Iron  Wire. 
id   inch  diam.  Philipsburg 
0.19    "      "               "     
0.156  "      «               "     
0.1       "      "            English.. 
Boiler  Iron  (American). 
Piled  iron  

tt 

ft 
«< 
« 
u 

H 

63000 

75000 
66000 
80000 
72000 

56000 

tt 

70000 

tt 

12500 
11000 
13300 
12000 

9300 

tt 
11700 

« 

55000 

tt 

9100 

tt 

t( 

51000 

a 

8500 

tt 

Cast  iron  

0.26 

18000 

(    80000 
\      to 

3000 

(13000 
1       to 

Wrought  Copper,  in  sheets.. 
Cast  Copper                    . 

0.32 
0  317 

30000 
17000 

(150000 
100000 
117000 

5000 
3000 

(  25000 
16000 
19500 

Copper  wire.  »  

0.32 

60000 

10000 

0.263 

4200 

1000 

700 

170 

Cast  Zinc  

0.248 

8400 

1400 

STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


[TABLE  CONTINUED.] 


351 


4 

•l 

2l 

II 

li 

!« 

P. 

If 

1*§ 

2S. 
I3! 

a 

MATERIAL. 

Sg 

•*  d  § 

$  fl-~ 

•sll 

«|a 

o  a 

31* 

Ip 

l§« 

•ggo 

"8> 

02-a 

G  2  a 

j»  S  ^ 

—  •  ^ 

i 

|8* 

gs! 

3** 

2-3 

Rolled  Zinc  

0.25 

7000 

1170 

Cast  Lead  

0.41 

1700 

483 

300 

80 

Rolled  Lead  

1800 

300 

Yellow  Brass  

0  282 

16000 

103000 

2700 

17000 

32000 

5300 

0.097 

10000 

1000 

Sandstone  

0.088 

800 

5000 

80 

500 

Limestone  (Magnesian)  

0.115 

5000 

500 

Oolites  

2000 

200 

0.114 

5000 

500 

Hydraulic  lime  mortar.... 

0  055 

140 

500 

15 

50 

0.056 

234 

700 

25 

70 

Ordinary  lime  mortar  (old).. 

0.058 

70 

500 

6 

50 

Best  quality  Brick  

0.069 

280 

2000 

30 

200 

Inferior  Brick  

0  062 

100 

800 

10 

80 

The  preceding  table  has  been  prepared  from  the 
highest  authorities — Morin,  Poncelet,  Claudel,  Bar- 
low, Hodgkinson,  Franklin  Institute,  and  others, 
and  the  utmost  reliance  may  be  placed  upon  it.  I* 
has  been  prepared  especially  for  the  practical  use 
of  American  mechanics.  The  numbers  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  columns  are  those  recommended  by  the 
most  eminent  engineers  and  practical  men  both  in 
this  country  and  Europe. 

With  regard  to  the  absolute  ultimate  strength 
of  materials,  it  is  proper  to  state  that  they  vary 


352  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUJDER. 

very  much  for  different  specimens  of  the  same 
material.  This  applies  more  especially  to  wood 
but  also  in  some  degree  to  all  substances.  It  de- 
pends much  on  the  state  of  the  specimen.  Foi 
instance,  in  the  following  table  will  be  found  the 
result  of  experiments  made  on  short  cylinders  of 
timber,  with  flat  ends,  subjected  to  a  compressive 
force.  The  cylinders  were  one  inch  in  diameter 
and  two  inches  in  height.  The  results  in  the  first 
column  were  obtained  from  timber  moderately  dry; 
those  in  the  second  column  were  obtained  in  like 
manner  from  similar  specimens  which  were  turned 
and  kept  in  a  warm  place  two  months  longer.  A 
comparison  of  the  two  columns  will  show  the  great 
importance  of  having  timber  thoroughly  seasoned 
in  order  to  obtain  its  full  strength. 

Strength  per  square 
inch,  in  pounds. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  WOOD.  , 

Green.  Dry. 

Ash -:...,  8683  .     9363 

Beech 7700  .  19300 

Birch 3200  .  11600 

Oak  (Quebec).     .     .    .    ;    .     .  4230  .     6000 

Oak  (English)  .     .     .  -  .         .,   .  6480  .  10000 

Larch       ....         .    ,    . "  •«•  3200  .     5560 

Willow .    .    .  2898  .     6128 

With  regard  to  the  safe  amount  of  strain  it  ia 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS.  358 

proper  to  charge  materials  with  in  constructions 
the  engineer  will  be  guided  in  each  particular  case 
by  his  judgment.  It  is  impossible  to  give  rules  for 
every  case.  If,  for  instance,  a  piece  of  timber  is 
to  occupy  a  position  where  the  strain  upon  it  is 
steady,  and  it  is  exposed  to  no  abrasion  or  decay 
supposing  it  to  be  a  fair  sound  specimen,  it  might 
be  submitted  safely  to  a  strain  as  high  as  one  sixth 
or  one  fifth  of  its  ultimate  strength.  But,  ordi 
narily,  this  would  be  too  high.  The  French  meca- 
niciens,  Poncelet,  Morin,  Claudel,  and  others  of  the 
highest  authority,  have  agreed  upon  certain  limits 
to  be  used  in  practice  for  all  kinds  of  materials 
and  which  will  be  given  below.  This  limit  for 
wood  is  one  tenth  the  ultimate  strength.  This  is 
the  same  ratio  recommended  by  Haupt  in  his  work 
on  Bridges,  ancl  which  he  found  to  be  perfectly 
successful  in  practice,  as  combining  a  judicious 
legree  of  strength  with  the  least  quantity  of  ma 
terial. 

As  the  mean  ultimate  strength  of  wood  may  be 
rated  at  ten  thousand  pounds  per  square  inch  of 
section,  both  for  compression  and  extension,  we 
have  for  our  practical  limit,  not  to  be  exceeded  in 
ordinary  cases  of  construction,  one  thousand  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Where  timber  is  exposed  to 

23 


854  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

other  than  the  legitimate  strains  due  to  its  position 
in  the  structure  to  which  it  belongs,  and  which  we 
will  show  how  to  calculate  farther  on,  the  engineer 
must  of  course  use  his  judgment,  unless  these  out- 
side forces  are  such  as  to  be  calculated.  The  limits 
SDoken  of  above,  are,  for  wood,  stone,  and  mortars, 
one  tenth  their  ultimate  resistance  both  for  exten- 
sion and  compression,  and  one  sixth  for  metals. 
As  M.  Poncelet  has  remarked,  it  would  be  more 
proper  to  determine  these  limits  from  the  limits  of 
elasticity  of  the  several  bodies,  but  experiments  on 
this  point  have  been  made  in  but  few  instances. 


ON  THE  STRENGTH  OF  IRON. — CAST-IRON. 

THIS  material, 'which  has  come  to  be  used  so  ex- 
tensively in  the  arts  and  in  constructions,  and 
whose  uses  are  daily  extending,  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  great  number  of  experiments.  The 
most  recent  and  reliable  are  those  of  Mr.  E.  Hodg- 
kinson,  the  English  experimenter.  Those  especially 
made  by  him  on  the  strength  of  columns,  both  solid 
and  hollow,  and  the  most  suitable  forms  for  cast- 
iron  beams  to  sustain  a  transverse  strain,  have  sup- 
plied the  engineer  and  architect  with  the  most 


STRENGTH    OF   CAST-IRON. 

valuable  guide  in  using  and  adapting  this  mttal  to 
the  various  purposes  of  construction. 

Resistance  to  Extension- -Experiments  have  been 
made  on  this  point  by  Mr.  Eennie  and  Captain 
Brown,  of  England,  and  under  the  direction  of  the 
Franklin  Institute  in  this  country,  and  also  by  Mr. 
Hodgkinson  of  England.  The  first  named  gentle- 
man obtained  for  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  ot 
cast-iron,  from  14,000  to  18,000  pounds  per  square 
inch  of  cross  section.  The  results  obtained  by  Mr. 
ETodgkinson,  also  on  English  iron,  both  hot  and  cold- 
blast,  was  from  12,000  to  19,000  per  square  inch. 

The  experiments  by  the  Franklin  Institute  on 
American  cast-iron  give  for  the  mean  tensile 
strength,  20,834  pounds  per  square  inch.  This 
material,  however,  on  account  of  its  brittleness,  and 
comparatively  low  power  of  resistance  to  a  strain 
of  extension,  is  seldom  ever  submitted  to  it.  It  is 
much  used  in  the  shape  of  cast-iron  beams,  to  resist 
a  transverse  strain,  but  this  has  been  shown  to  be 
nothing  more  than  a  strain  of  compression  on  one 
part,  and  of  extension  on  another  part  of  the  same 
piece.  In  large  works,  it  would  be  much  better  to 
use  a  combination  of  cast  and  wrought-iron  for  re- 
sisting a  transverse  strain,  the  cast  fcr  compression 
and  the  wrought  for  extension. 


356  BRASS    AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

Care  must  be  taken  however,  that  the  different 
degrees  of  expansion  of  these  two  materials  by  heat 
produce  no  injurious  effects.  The  limit  of  elasticity 
as  assigned  by  Claudel,  is  -—fii,  and  the  force  neces- 
sary to  produce  it  16,100  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Some  few  remarks  on  the  characteristics  of  cast- 
iror  may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  (They  are 
mostly  from  the  pen  of  Professor  Mahan.)  Cast- 
iron  is  divided  into  two  distinct  varieties,  the  white 
cast-iron  and  gray  cast-iron.  There  are  of  course 
intermediate  varieties,  which  partake  more  or  less 
of  the  properties  of  these  two,  as  they  approach  in 
appearance  nearer  the  one  or  the  other. 

Gray  cast-iron  when  of  good  quality  is  slightly 
malleable  in  a  cold  state,  and  will  yield  readily  to 
the  action  of  the  file,  when  the  hard  outside  scale 
caused  by  the  chill  in  casting  is  removed.  It  is 
also  sometimes  termed  soft  gray  cast-iron ;  it  is 
softer  and  tougher  than  the  white  iron.  On  strik- 
ing a  sharp  corner  with  the  point  of  a  hammer,  an 
indentation  will  be  produced,  when  in  the  other 
variety  a  piece  would  fly  out.  When  broken,  the 
surface  of  the  fracture  presents  a  granular  structure, 
the  c<?lor  is  gray,  and  the  lustre  is  what  is  termed 
metallic,  resembling  small  brilliant  particles  of  lead 
screwed  over  the  surface. 


STRENGTH   OF   CAST-IRON.  357 

White  cast-iron  is  very  hard  and  brittle;  when 
recently  broken,  the  surface  of  the  fracture  presents 
a  distinctly  marked  crystalline  structure.  The  color 
is  white,  and  lustre  vitreous  or  glassy. 

The  following  description,  from  Mr.  Mallet's  Ee- 
port  to  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  comprises  the  different  varieties : 

"Silvery. — Least  fusible,  thickens  rapidly,  when 
fluid,  by  a  spontaneous  puddling;  crystals  vesicular 
often  crystalline ;  incapable  of  being  cut  by  chisel 
or  file;  ultimate  cohesion  a  maximum;  elastic  range 
a  minimum. 

"Micaceous. — Yery  soft;  a  greasy  feel ;  peculiai 
micaceous  appearance,  generally  owing  to  excess 
of  manganese;  soils  the  fingers  strongly;  crystal? 
large ;  runs  very  fluid ;  contraction  large. 

"Mottled.— Tough  and  hard ;  filed  or  cut  with  diffi 
culty ;  crystals  large  and  small  mixed ;  sometimes- 
runs  thick ;  contraction  in  cooling  a  maximum. 

"Bright    Gray. — Toughness  and   hardness   most 
suitable  for  working ;  ultimate  cohesion  and  elastic 
range  generally  are  balanced  most  advantageously 
crystals  uniform,  very  minute. 

"Dull  Gray. — Less  tcugh  than  the  preceding; 
othei  characters  alike ;  contraction  in  cooling  a 
minimum 


358  BRASS    AND    IRON    FOUNDER. 

"Dark  Gray. — Most  fusible;  remains  long  fluid , 
exudes  graphite  in  cooling;  soils  the  fingers;  crys 
tals  large  and  lamellar ;  ultimate  cohesion  a  mini- 
mum ;  .and  elastic  range  a  maximum. 

"The  gray  iron  is  most  suitable  where  strength  is 
required;  and  the  white  where  hardness  is  the 
principal  requisite." 

The  color  and  lustre  presented  by  the  surface  of 
a  recent  fracture  are  the  best  indications  of  the 
quality  of  iron. 

A  uniform  middling  dark  gray  color  and  high 
metallic  lustre  are  indications  of  the  best  and 
strongest.  With  the  same  color,  but  less  lustre 
the  iron  will  be  found  to  be  softer  and  weaker,  and 
to  crumble  more  readily.  Iron  without  lustre,  of 
a  dark  and  mottled  color,  is  the  softest  and  weakest 
of  the  gray  varieties.  » 

"  Iron  of  a  light  gray  color,  and  high  metallic 
lustre,  is  usually  very  hard  and  tenacious.  As  the 
color  approaches  to  white,  and  the  metallic  lustre 
changes  to  vitreous,  hardness  and  brittleness  become 
more  marked,  until  the  extremes  of  a  dull  or  gray- 
ish white  color,  and  a  very  high  vitreous  lustre,  are 
attained,  which  are  the  indications  of  the  hardest 
and  most  brittle  of  the  white  variety. 

"  The  strength  of  cast-iron  varies  with  its  density 


STRENGTH    OF   CAST-IRON.  359 

and  this  element  depends  upon  the  temperature  of 
the  metal  when  drawn  from  the  furnace,  the  rate 
of  cooling,  the  head  of  metal  under  which  the  cast- 
ing is  made,  and  the  bulk  of  the  casting. 

"The  density  of  iron  cast  in  vertical  moulds 
increases  according  to  Mallet's  experiments,  very 
rapidly  from  the  top  downward,  to  a  depth  of  about 
four  feet  below  the  top ;  from  this  point  to  the  bot- 
tom, the  rate  of  increase  is  very  nearly  uniform. 

"  All  other  circumstances  the  same,  the  density 
decreases  with  the  bulk  of  the  casting  ;  hence  large, 
are  proportionally  weaker  than  small  castings. 
From  all  these  causes  by  which  the  strength  of 
iron  may  be  influenced,  it  is  very  difficult  to  judge 
of  the  quality  of  a  casting  by  its  external  characters ; 
vn  general,  however,  if  the  exterior  presents  a  uni- 
form appearance  devoid  of  marked  inequalities  of 
surface,  it  will  be  an  indication  of  uniform  strength." 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  with  re- 
gard to  the  relative  merits  of  hot-blast  and  cold 
blast  iron.   Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson  have 
investigated  the  matter,  and  their  conclusions  are 
expressed  in  the  following  paragraph :  .  "  The  ulti 
matum  of  our  inquiries  made  in  this  way  stands  in 
the  ratio  of   strength,    1000  for  the  cold-blast  to 
1024.8  for  the  hot-blast.      The  relative  powers  to 


360  BRASS   AND    [RON   FOUNDER. 

sustain  impact  are  likewise  in  favor  of  the  hot-blast, 
being  in  the  ratio  of  1000  to  1126.3." 

The  durability  of  cast-iron  under  exposure  de- 
pends on  different  circumstances,  the  bulk  of  the 
casting,  its  homogeneity  and  density,  &c.  Mr.  Mallet 
has  made  researches  on  this  subject,  and  the  follow- 
ing are  the  conclusions  he  arrived  at : 

"  That  the  decay  of  iron  when  exposed  to  the 
action  of  water,  is  principally  due  to  Yoltaic  agen- 
cy, especially  in  tidal  rivers,  where  there  are  strata 
of  different  densities,  a  Voltaic  pile  being  thus 
formed  of  one  solid  body,  and  two  fluid  ones, 
making  the  corrosion  ^much  more  rapid  than  where 
the  water  is  homogeneous.  Pure  sea-water  has 
much  less  action  on  iron  than  the  water  of  harbors 
and  docks,  owing  to  the  hydrosulphuric  acid  con- 
tained in  the  latter,  and  which  comes  from  the  mud 
at  the  bottom.  In  sea- water  (pure)  the  rate  of  cor- 
rosion of  pieces  one  inch  thick,  is  four  tenths  of  an 
inch  for  cast-iron,  and  six  tenths  for  wrought-iron 
per  century.  In  fresh  water  the  corrosive  action  is 
much  less  than  under  any  other  circumstances  ci 
irn  mersion,  the  coat  of  oxide  formed  on  the  outside 
not  being  dissolved  and  washed  away  as  in  sea- 
water,  but  remaining  as  A  kind  of  protection.  In 
hot  soa-water,  the  corrosion  is  most  rapid  of  any 


STRENGTH   OP  CAST-IRON.  361 

other  circumstances.  Iron,  ^hill-cast,  corrodes  more 
rapidly  than  when  cast  in  green  sand,  by  reason  of 
the  want  of  homogeneity  of  the  metal,  thus  forming 
Voltaic  couples  of  different  densities.  When  soft 
and  hard  cast-iron  are  brought  together  under  water. 
the  soft  is  corroded  much  more  rapidly  than  when 
by  itself,  while  the  hard  suffers  much  less;  castings 
made  in  dry  sand  are  more  durable  in  water  than 
those  made  in  green  sand.  From  one  eighth  to  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  on  the  outside  of  castings,  is 
termed  the  hard  crust.  When  this  is  removed,  the 
iron  corrodes  much  more  rapidly.  The  chief  point 
in  making  castings  to  be  exposed  to  this  agent,  is 
to  have  them  as  homogeneous  as  possible,  and  of  as 
great  density." 

Mr.  Mallet  concludes  with  the  following  very  ju- 
dicious remarks  :  "  The  engineer  of  observant  habit 
will  soon  have  perceived,  that  in  exposed  works  of 
iron,  equality  of  section  or  scantling,  in  all  parts 
sustaining  equal  strain,  is  far  from  insuring  equal 
passive  power  of  permanent  resistance,  unless,  in 
addition  to  a  general  allowance  for  loss  of  substance 
by  corrosion,  this  latter  element  be  so  provided  for, 
that  it  shall  be  equally  balanced  over  the  whole 
structure ;  or,  if  not,  shall  be  compelled  to  con- 
finu  itself  to  portions  of  the  general  structure 


362  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

which  may  lose  substance  without   impairing  its 
stability." 


COMPOSITION  FOR  SILVERING  BRASS. 

TAKE  silver,  or  gold  lace,  half  an  ounce;  adn 
thereto  one  ounce  of  double  refined  aqua  fortis- 
put  them  in  an  earthen  pot,  and  place  them  over  a 
gentle  fire  till  all  be  dissolved,  which  will  happen 
in  about  five  minutes ;  then  take  it  off  and  mix  it 
in  a  pint  of  clear  water,  after  which,  pour  it  into 
another  clean  vessel  to  free  it  from  grit  or  sediment 
and  then  add  a  spoonful  of  salt,  and  the  green  watei 
will  immediately  let  go  the  silver  particles,  which 
will  form  themselves  into  a  white  curd.  Then  pour 
off  the  water  and  throw  it  away,  for  it  is  of  no  fur- 
ther use.  The  white  curd  must  then  be  mixed  with 
two  ounces  of  salt  of  tartar,  half  an  ounce  of  whiting, 
a."J;  i  large  spoonful  of  salt,  more  or  less,  according 
a£  you  find  it  for  strength.  Mix  it  well  up  together; 
and  it  is  ready  for  use. 


RESISTANCE   TO   COMPRESSION.  363 


TO  SILVER  BRASS, 

HAVING  well  cleared  the  biass  from  all  scratches 
(otherwise  it  will  spoil  its  appearance),  rub  it  over 
with  a  piece  of  an  old  beaver  hat  and  rotten -stone 
to  clear  it  from  all  greasiness ;  then  rub  it  with  salt 
and  water  with  your  hand ;  then  take  a  little  of  the 
before- mentioned  composition  on  your  finger,  and 
rub  it  over  where  the  salt  has  touched,  and  it  will 
adhere  to  the  brass,  and  appear  as  well  as  silver. 
After  which,  wash  and  steep  it  in  plenty  of  clear 
cold  water,  to  kill  the  aqua  fortis  which  remained 
in  the  composition  ;  and  when  dried  with  a  clean 
hot  rag,  it  is  then  ready  to  be  varnished  with  the 
white  lacquer. 


RESISTANCE  TO  COMPRESSION. 

THE  best  authority  on  this  point  is  Mr.  Hodgkin- 
son,  whose  experiments  were  very  full  and  varied. 
The  trials  were  mostly  on  small  columns  with  cir- 
cular bases.  The  resistance  was  found  constant  for 
a  height  less  than  once  and  a  half  the  diameter  of 
the  base,  from  this  to  a  height  equal  to  three  times 
the  base ;  the  resistance  was  less  than  before,  but 


364  BRASS   AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

still  remained  constant ;  and  for  any  height  greater 
than  this,  the  resistance  decreased  with  the  height. 
When  the  piece  was  higher  than  three  times  the 
base,  the  rupture  generally  took  place  by  bending. 
The  pieces  submitted  to  experiment  generally 
yielded  by  an  oblique  fracture,  the  upper  pan 
eliding  off  on  the  lower.  The  angle  made  by  the 
plane  of  the  fracture,  with  the  axis  of  the  solid,  was 
constant,  and  equal  to  about  55°. 

The  strength  was  found  to  be  in  direct  propor- 
don  to  the  area  of  the  cross  section.  The  measure 
therefore,  of  the  resistance  offered  by  a  solid  to  rup- 
ture, either  by  compression  or  extension,  is  thai 
force  which  will  rupture  a  sectional  area  of  the 
solid  represented  by  unity.  The  following  are  the 
results  obtained  by  Mr.  Hodgkinson.  The  mean 
of  the  experiments  on  hot-blast  iron  gave,  for  crush- 
ing weight,  121,685  ibs.  per  square  inch ;  cold-blast 
iron  gave  a  mean  of  125,400  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 
These  were  on  short  prisms,  whose  cross  section 
was  a  circle.  When  the  section  was  a  square,  GT 
other  regular  figure,  the  resistance  was  decrease ri 
to  100,600  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


RESISTANCE   TO   COMPRESSION.  365 

Table  from  Mr.  Hodgkinson's  Experiments. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  METAL. 

Compressive  Force 
per  square  inch, 
in  pounds. 

Tensile  Force  per] 
square    inch,    in! 
pounds. 

Devon  iron,  No.  3,  hot-blast  

145,435 

21,907 

Bufferyiron,  No.  1,  hot-blast... 

86,397 

13,434 

Do.         "     No.  1,   cold-blast.. 

93,385 

17,466 

Do.        "    No.  2,    hot-blast... 

82,734 

16,676 

Do.         "          "       cold-blast.. 

81,770 

18,855 

Carron  iron,        "       hot-blast.  . 

108,540 

13,505 

Do.        "          <«      cc  Id-blast.. 

106,375 

16,683 

Do.         "      No.  3,  hot-blast... 

133,440 

17,755 

Do.         «          «      cold-blast.. 

115,442 

14,200 

Resistance  to  a  Transverse  strain. — The  resistance 
of  cast-iron  to  a  transverse  strain,  is  a  subject  of 
the  highest  importance  to  the  engineer  and  archi- 
tect. Indeed,  to  prove  this,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
point  to  the  daily  extending  uses  of  this  material 
in  almost  every  possible  shape,  and  it  is  well  known 
that  cast-iron  is  seldom,  if  ever,  submitted  to  any 
other  than  a  transverse  strain,  as  in  cast-iron  beams, 
girders,  &c.,  and  a  strain  of  compression,  as  in 
columns,  which  will  be  investigated  farther  on. 

The  theory  of  the  transverse  strain  has  been  fully 
investigated;  and  great  numbers  of  experiments 
have  also  been  made  on  this  point,  so  that  among 
mechanics  the  matter  is  considered  as  sufficiently 
settled. 

The  remarks  below  apply  to  other  materials,  as 
well  as  to  cast-iron. 


366 


BRASS    1ND    IRON    FOUNDER. 


Let  A  B  be  a  body  to  which  a  force,  P,  &  ap- 
plied, in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  direction 
of  the  fibres.  Supposing  the  force  to  be  sufficient 
to  bend  the  body,  as  in  the  figure,  the  fibres  a  b,  on 


Fig.  11. 

the  upper  side,  will  be  extended,  while  those,  c  a, 
on  the  lower  side,  will  suffer  a  strain  of  compres- 
sion. This  can  be  made  evident ;  for,  by  increasing 
the  weight  P,  until  a  fracture  takes  place,  the  rup- 
ture will  be  found  to  commence  on  the  convex  side, 
thereby  proving  that  the  fibres  on  that  side  have 
been  most  extended ;  and  if  some  of  the  fibres  on 
the  convex  side  be  separated  by  cutting  them 
through  transversely,  it  will  be  found  that  a 
smaller  force  than  P  will  suffice  to  produce  the 
rupture. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  fibres  on  the  concave 
side,  c  d,  be  cut  through  transversely  to  a  depth,  m  n 


RESISTANCE   TO   COMPRESSION.  367 

Corresponding  to  about  half  the  depth  of  the  piece, 
and  a  slip  of  hard  material  like  a  sheet  of  iron  be 
interposed,  so  as  to  just  fill  the  place  cut  out,  it 
will  be  found,  on  subjecting  it  again  to  the  force  P 
that  the  thin  plate  will  be  strongly  retained  by  a 
pressure  tending  to  compress  it,  while  the  strength 
of  the  solid  will  not  be  altered — the  rupture  com- 
mencing under  the  same  strain,  and  in  the  same 
place  as  before.  As  we  proceed  from  the  convex 
toward  the  concave  side  of  the  solid,  the  extension 
of  the  fibres  will  gradually  become  less,  until  at  a 
point  at  or  near  the  centre  of  the  piece,  the  length 
of  the  fibres  will  be  found  to  undergo  no  variation. 
Beyond  this  distance,  the  fibres  will  be  found  to  be 
more  and  more  compressed,  until  we  arrive  at  the 
concave  side,  where  the  compression  will  be  at  its 
maximum.  The  position  of  the  fibres,  whose  form 
is  not  altered  by  the  flexure,  and  represented  by 
the  line  e  /,  is  called  the  neutral  axis.  Its 
position  varies  for  different  substances,  but  for 
practical  purposes  may  be  considered  to  coincide 
with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  transverse  section 
of  the  solid. 

The  fibres,  whose  lengths  are  not  altered,  are 
contained  before  the  flexture  in  a  plane  perpen- 
dicular to  the  direction  of  the  pressure,  and  which, 


368  BRASS    AND    IRON   FOUNDER, 

of  course,  contains  the  neutral  axis,  as  one  of  its 
elements.  After  the  flexure,  these  fibres  form  a 
cylindrical  surface,  whose  elements  are  parallel  to 
the  same  plane. 

Moreover,  the  fibres,  at  equal  distances  above  and 
below  this  plane,  undergo  equal  extensions  and 
compressions. 

In  order  to  investigate  the  circumstances  of  a 
body  submitted  to  a  transverse  strain,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  obtain  the  moment  of  the  acting  force,  with 
reference  to  the  points  of  support,  and  establish  an 
equation  between  this  and  what  is  called  the  "  mo- 
ment of  elasticity,"  when  the  deflection  of  the  body 
is  in  question,  and  the  moment  of  rupture,  when 
rupture  is  the  point.  The  investigation  is  conducted 
by  the  aid  of  the  higher  analysis,  and  would  be 
of  no  use  to  the  practical  engineer.  It  is  therefore 
omitted — all  the  results,  however,  being  given  in  a 
form  to  be  easily  understood.  These  remarks  apply 
to  other  materials,  wood,  &c.,  as  well  as  to  cast- 
iron. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Hodgkinson  on  cast 
iron  beams,  the  strength  of  best  form  for,  &c. 
are  the  latest  and  most  reliable  authority  on  this 
point. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  one  of  his  ex- 


RESISTANCE   TO   COMPRESSION. 


369 


periments  on  bars  of  cold-blast  iron  five  feet  long ; 
distance  between  supports,  four  feet  six  inches ;  the 
weight  being  applied  at  the  middle  of  the  bar : 


Rectangular  Bar 
1  Inch  deep,  1  inch  broad. 

Rectangular  Bar 
3  inches  deep,  1  inch  broad 

Rectangular  Bar 
5  inches  deep,  1  inch  broad. 

Weight 

Defl'ct'n 

Weight 

Defl'ct'n 

Weight     Defl'ct'n 

in 

in 

Set  in 

in 

in 

Set  in 

in 

in 

Set  in 

pound*. 

inch«a. 

incbea. 

pounds. 

inches. 

inches. 

pounds. 

inches. 

inches. 

16 

.033 

1082 

.091 

.003 

4936 

.110 

.013 

30 

.062 

1343 

.111 

.006 

5867 

.130 

.017 

56 

.120 

.002 

1605 

.138 

.COS 

6798 

.153 

.020 

112 

.240 

.007 

1836 

.164 

.010 

7730 

.179 

.025 

168 

.370 

.014 

2126 

.190 

•012 

8662 

.195 

.030 

224 

.510 

.028 

2388 

.220 

.015 

9593 

.219 

.034 

280 

.649 

.041 

2649 

.250 

.Oltf 

10525 

.250 

.042 

336 

.798 

.061 

2910 

.281 

.026 

10588 

Broke. 

392 

.953 

.084 

3172 

.310 

.031 

448 

1.120 

.120 

3433 

.345 

.037 

504 

1.310 

.170 

3694 

.378 

.046 

514 

3825 

Broke. 

518 

Broke. 

Ultimate  deflection, 

Ultimate  deflection, 

Ultimate  deflection, 

1.36. 

.395. 

0.252. 

STATIC   PRESSURE   OF  WATER   UNDER   DIFFERENT 
HEADS. 

A  CONVENIENT  and  easily  remembered  method 
for  approximating  to  the  pressure  of  water,  is  to 
allow  one  half  pound  pressure  per  square  inch  for 
each  foot  of  head.  The  pressure  at  any  point  being 
directly  ^is  the  perpendicular  depth  below  the  level 

24 


87  0  BRASS   AND   IRON   FOUNDER. 

of  the  surface,  this  simple  rule  affords  a  ready 
method  of  ascertaining  its  amount  with  an  accu- 
racy sufficiently  close  for  ordinary  purposes.  That 
it  is  not  strictly  correct,  however,  may  be  readily 
perceived  ;  and  having  occasion,  recently,  to  calcu- 
late with  tolerable  exactness  the  pressure  corres- 
ponding to  several  heads  between  ten  and  one 
hundred  feet,  I  present  the  following  Table  for  the 
convenience  of  others,  having  enlarged  it  by  the 
addition  of  several  numbers  outside  of  the  limits 
named  above.  The  temperature  of  the  water  is 
assumed  at  59°  Fahrenheit ;  the  density,  from  the 
presence  of  salts  and  other  foreign  matters,  is  as- 
sumed at  1.000,149,  distilled  water  being  1.000,000. 
This  density,  corresponding  with  the  investigations 
of  Briagarand  on  the  water  of  the  Garronne,  and 
with  that  of  Brisson  on  the  Seine,  I  have  assumed 
as  the  density  of  ordinary  fresh  water.  An  allow- 
ance should  perhaps  be  made  for  the  increase  of 
density  due  to  the  compression  under  great  heads, 
but  too  slight  to  be  of  any  practical  importance. 

Recent  experiments  on  this  point  indicate  a  com- 
pression about  TuirVlxnj  of  its  bulk,  under  a  pres 
sure  of  one,  atmosphere,  or  33.90  feet  luad. 

A  pipe  of  cast-iron  15  inches  diameter  and  f  of 
an  inch  thick,  will  sustain  a  head  of  water  of  SIT 


PRESSURE   OF   WATER. 


371 


nundred  feet.  One  of  oak,  two  inches  thick,  and 
of  the  same  diameter,  will  sustain  a  head  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet. 


Head 
j      |    iufeet. 

Pressure,  in  pounds, 
per  square  inch. 

—  5          1 

.43 

—10          2 

.88 

—15          3 

1.30 

—20          4 

1.73 

—25          6 

2.16 

—30        10 

4.33 

—35        15 

6.50 

—40        20 

8.66 

—45        25 

10.83 

—50        30 

12. 

—55        35 

15.16 

—60        40 

17.33 

—65        45 

19.50 

60 

21.66 

55 

23.83 

60 

25.90 

65 

28.06 

70 

80.65 

75 

32.72 

80 

34.66 

85 

36.83 

90 

38.90 

95 

41.07 

100 

43.33 

125 

5417 

150 

65. 

175 

76.05 

200 

86.67 

300 

130.01 

400 

17334 

500 

216.68 

600 

259.02 

700 

305.55 

800 

846.69 

900 

389.03 

1000 

433-37 

1500 

650-05 

2000 

866.74 

3000 

1300.11 

4000 

1733.48 

6000 

2166.88 

6000 

2600.22 

7000 

3033.59 

8000 

3466.96 

9000 

3900.33 

10000 

4333.70 

By  paying  strict  attention  to  the  above  Table^ 


372  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

much  loss  and  inconvenience  will  be  saved,  paiticu 
larly  to  plumbers,  &c.,  in  laying  down  pipes  of  the 
required  strength  according  to  the  pressure,  saving 
bursting,  taking  up,  and  laying  down  others,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  annoyance  of  tearing  up  pave- 
ments, highways,  &c.,  through  the%want  of  a  proper 
knowledge  of  the  static  pressure  in  all  cases  per 
square  inch. 


DIRECTIONS   FOR  PREPARING   AND  FITTING   BAB- 
BITT'S ANTI-ATTRTTION    METAL. 

MELT  4  pounds  of  copper,  add  by  degrees  12 
pounds  best  quality  of  Banca  tin,  8  pounds  regulu9 
of  antimony,  and  12  pounds  more  of  tin  while  the 
composition  is  in  a  melted  state. 

After  the  copper  is  melted  and  4  or  5  pounds 
of  tin  have  been  added,  the  heat  should  be  reduced 
to  a  dull  red,  to  prevent  oxidation ;  then  add  the 
remainder  of  the  metal  as  above.  In  melting  the 
composition,  it  is  better  to  keep  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  charcoal  on  the  surface  of  the  metal. 
The  above  composition  is  called  Hardening.  For 
lining  the  boxes,  take  one  pound  of  this  Hardening 
and  melt  it  with  two  pounds  of  Banca  tin,  which 
produces  the  lining  metal  for  use.  Thus,  the  pro 


BABBITT'S  ANTI-ATTRITION  METAL.        373 

portions  for  Lining  Metal  are  4  pounds  of  copper, 
8  pounds  of  regulus  of  antimony,  and  96  pounds 
of  Banca  tin. 

The  article  to  be  lined,  having  been  cast  with 
a  recess  for  the  lining,  is  to  be  nicely  fitted  to  a 
former,  which  is  made  the  same  shape  as  the  bear- 
ing. Drill  a  hole  in  the  article  for  the  reception  of 
the  metal,  say  one  half  or  three  fourths  of  an  inch, 
according  to  the  size  of  it.  Coat  over  the  part  not 
to  be  tinned  with  a  clay  wash ;  wet  the  part  to  be 
tinned  with  alcohol,  and  sprinkle  on  it  powdered 
sal  ammoniac ;  heat  it  till  a  fume  arises  from  the 
sal  ammoniac,  and  then  immerse  it  in  melted  Banca 
tin.  care  being  taken  not  to  heat  it  so  that  it  will 
oxidize. 

After  the  article  is  tinned,  should  it  have  a  dark 
color,  sprinkle  a  little  sal  ammoniac  on  it,  which 
will  make  it  of  a  bright  silver  color,  and  cool  it 
gradually  in  water.  Then  take  the  former,  to  which 
the  article  has  been  fitted,  and  coat  it  over  with  a 
thin  clay  wash,  and  warm  it  so  that  it  will  be  per- 
fectly dry ;  'heat  the  article  until  the  tin  begins  to 
melt,  lay  it  on  the  former,  and  pour  in  the  metal, 
which  should  not  be  so  hot  as  to  oxidize  through — 
the  drilled  hole  giving  it  a  head,  so  that  as  it  shrinks 


374  BRASS    AND   IRON    FOUNDER. 

it  will  fill  up.     After  it  is  sufficiently  cool  remove 
the  former. 

P.  S. — A  snorter  method  may  be  adopted  when 
the  work  is  light  enough  to  handle  quickly,  viz. : — 
When  the  article  is  prepared  for  tinning,  it  may  be 
immersed  in  the  lining  metal  instead  of  the  tin, 
brushed  lightly  in  order  to  remove  the  sal  ammo- 
niac from  the  surface,  placed  immediately  on  the 
former,  and  lined  at  the  same  heating. 


SOLDERING  FLUID  FOB  SOFT  SOLDER. 

To  two  fluid  ounces  of  muriatic  acid  add  small 
pieces  of  zinc  until  bubbles  cease  to  rise ;  add  half 
a  teaspoonful  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  two  fluid  ounces 
of  water. 

P.  S. — By  the  application  of  this,  iron  or  steej 
may  be  soldered  without  being  previously  tinned. 


ALLOY   OF   THE   STANDARD   MEASURE   USED   BY 
GOVERNMENT. 

576  Parts  of  copper, 
59       "         tin, 
48       "          brass  (yellow,  22  cop.  to  1  of  zinc). 


TUTENAG  AND  EXPANSION  METAL.     375 
TUTENAG. 

8  parts  of  copper,  5  parts  of  zinc,  and  3  parts  of 
nickel. 

EXPANSION   METAL. 

9  parts  of  lead,  2  parts  of  antimony,  and  1  part 
bismuth. 

BRONZING   GUN   BARRELS. 

First  make  the  barrels  smooth  and  bright  with 
emery ;  after  which  clean  carefully  with  lime  to  remove 
all  grease ;  then  apply  the  following  mixture  with  a 
clean  sponge  or  rag:  To  a  quart  of  soft  water,  add 
one  ounce  and  a  half  of  spirits  of  wine,  one  ounce 
and  a  half  tincture  of  steel,  half  an  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  one  ounce  and  a  half  of  sweet  spirits  of 
nitre,  one  ounce  of  blue  vitrol,  and  three  quarters  of 
an  ounce  of  nitric  acid.  The  barrels  are  then  to  be 
exposed  to  the  air  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  which 
rub  with  a  steel  scratch-brush  until  the  rust  is  en- 
tirely removed ;  then  again  apply  the  mixture,  and 
in  a  few  hours  repeat  the  scratch  brushing.  Con 
tinue  the  operation  for  four  or  five  days  ;  then  wash 
the  barrels  with  plenty  of  hot  water,  and  while  hot, 
finish  with  a  leather  and  a  little  beeswax  and  turpen- 
tine. This  will  give  a  fine  and  glossy  finish. 


INDEX. 


ACID,  boracic,  290 
sulphurous,  293 
Acids,  metallic,  12 
Alchemists,  aim  of  the,  1,  2 
Alkalies,  fixed,  12 
Alkaline  earths,  12 
Alloy,  definition  of  an,  185 
for  silver  plate  and  med- 
als, 227 

for  standard  measure,  used 
by  the  government,  374 
non-oxidizable,  267 
of  American  gold  coin,  227 
of  copper,  tin  and  iron,  344 
Rose's,  178 

Alloys,  amalgams,  etc.,  185-189 
and    metals,   behavior  of, 
in  melting  and  congeal- 
ing, 24-31 
artificial,    importance    of, 

189 

atomic,  of  copper  and  tin, 
properties  of  the, 
23 

of  copper  and  zinc, 
experimental  re- 
sults   as   to  the 
properties  of,  22 
casting  of,  52-58 
copper  and   tin,  properties 

of,  43,  44 

density  of,  187,  188 
for  bells,  experiments  on, 

111,  112       • 

for  repairing  holes  in  cast- 
ings, 163,  164 


Alloys,  fusible,  178,  179 
melting  points  of,  24 
metallic,  14-18 

formation  of,  16,  17 
natural,  185,  186 
new,  of  zinc,  242-246 
of  copper  and  zinc,  47-49 
of  copper,    zinc,   tin    and 

lead,  49,  50 

prepared  with  cu  pro-man- 
ganese, composition  of, 
260 

properties  of,  186,  187 
Aluminium,  advantages    of  an 
addition  of,  to  fluid  iron, 
70,  71 

bronze,  247-255 
casting  of,  254 
forging  of,  255 
manufacture  of,  on  a 
large     scale,    251- 
253 
peculiar       properties 

of,  255 
preparation    of,    249- 

251 

properties  of,  247,  248 
shrinkage  of,  254 
experiment  with,  for  bells, 

112 

iron,  71 
Amalgam,   192-194 

definition  of  an,  185 
density  of  an,  193 
native',  192 
of  zinc  and  mercury,  15 

377 


878 


INDEX. 


Amalgams  and  alloys,  185-189 
American   cast    iron,    experi- 
ments on,  355 
gold  coin  alloy,  227 
Analyses  of  a  few  bell-metals, 

134 

of  mitis  metal,  73,  74 
Aniline  bronzing  fluid,  298 
Annealing  boxes,  66 

malleable   castings,  64-67 
ovens,  66,  67 
steel,  285-288 

Anstey's,   Mr.,  patent  process 
for  the  manufacture  of  cru- 
cibles, 283,  284 
Anti-friction  metal,  Babbitt's, 
preparing  and 
fitting,372- 
374 

Fenton's,  345 
Anti-friction  metals,  203 
Antimony,  42,  43 

amalgamation  of,  193,  194 
and  copper,  207 
and   tin,   copper   and  bis- 
muth, 207 
Argol,  200,  201 
Arsenic,  antidote  to,  311 
melting  of,  237 
Prof.  N.  Masculyne  on,  238 
properties  of,  240-242 
white,    reducing      copper 

with,  343 

Ashes,  sweepings,  etc.,  from 
brass  foundry  furnaces,  gil- 
ders' and  jewellers'  work- 
shops, etc.,  washing  of,  334- 
337 
Autogenous  soldering,  228 

•p  ABBITT'S  anti-friction  met- 
-D     al,  preparing   and  fitting, 

372-374 

Back  mould  or  cope,  60 
Bedil  or  tin,  37-39 
Bell,   constituent  parts    of    a, 
112,  113 


Bell  founding    110-135 
metal,  14,  45,  46,  188 

proposed  substitutes  for, 

111 
metals,  analyses   of  a   few, 

134 

composition  of,  1 10,  111 
nloulding  the  cope  of  a,  126, 

127 

the  crown  of  a,  127 
the,  in  inverted  position, 

116,  117 

the,  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion. 115,  116 
principal    conditions    for   a 

good,  117,  118 
tracing   the    correct    profile 

of  a,  118-120 
Bells,  198.  199 

calculating   the   sizes    of, 

121,  122 

casting  large,  128-132 
cracked,  repairing  of,  132, 

133 

founding  of,  57,  58 
hanging  of,  122,  123 
house,     composition     for, 

110 

invention  of,  198 
large,  list  of,  135 

mouldingof,  123-128 
and  casting  of, 
117-132 

small,  casting  and  mould- 
ing of,  113-117 
variation    of    weights    of, 

122 
weight  of  a  few  peals  of, 

133,  134 

Benneville,  Jas.  S.  de,  analysis 
of  deoxidized  bronze  by, 
258 

Berlin  Royal  Foundry,    cruci- 
bles used  in  the,  281,282 
type  metal,  233,  234 
Berzelius,  discovery  of  sileniuro 
by, 294 


INDEX. 


379 


Bessemer  steel  castings,  78 
Birds,  insects,  frogs,  fish,  vege- 
tables,  etc.,   to   cast   in 
plaster  moulds,  I1?1? 
Bismuth,  195,  196,  202 
Bismuth  and  lead,  208 
Black,  Brunswick,  321 
flux,  199,  200,  338 
lead  bronze,  304,  305 
crucibles,  282,  283 
wash,  for  cores,  332 
Blackening,  sand  core  mould- 
ing, etc.,  328-333 
Blanched  copper,  171 
Block  tin,  38,  39 
Blow-holes   in   steel    castings, 

83-85 

Blueing  and  gilding  steel,  312 
Boracic  acid,  290 
Borax,  289-291 
Boron,  289-291 
Boxes,  annealing,  6G 
Brass,  14,  172,  173 

and  copper  vessels,  to  zinc, 

216 
and  iron,  conducting  heat 

of,  327 

best,  composition  of,  205 
bronze  and  copper,  substi- 
tutes for,  242-246. 
bronze     Barbedienne    on, 

298,  299 
casting,  insertion  of  a  core 

in  the  mould  for  a,  94 
casting  of,  88-99 
casting,  thin,  95,  96 
castings,  shrinkage  of,  89 
coloring,  a  deep  blue,  324, 

325 
composition  for  silvering, 

362 

etc.,  to  bronze,  211 
for    rolling   and    forging, 
best  composition  of,  339, 
340 

founders'  air  furnaces,  96, 
97 


Brass  fi  unding,  33-35 

foundry  furnaces,  washing 
ashes,    sweepings,   etc., 
from,  334-337 
guns,  58-60 
melting  of,  96 
mirrors,  170 
mixing    and    pouring    of, 

97-99 
nuts,  casting  of,  on  screws, 

164,  165 
or  cast  copper,  tinning  of. 

341 

solder,  225 

steel-gray  coating  on,  299 
Syracuse  and  Corinthian, 

171 

to  silver,  363 

work,  modelling  and  pat- 
tern-making for,  88,  89 
work,    ordinary,    arrange- 
ment of,  in  the  flask,91 
small,    moulding    tub 

for,  90,  91 
yellow,  190 

Brazing  solder,  fine,  51 
Bread  paste,  to  cast  in,  182 
Brilliants  of  Fahlun,  208 
Britannia  metal,  232 
British  weapons   and   tools  in 

bronze,  171 
Bronze,  W8 

aluminium,  247—255 
casting  of,  254 
forging  of,  255 
manufacture  of,  on  a 
large  scale,   251- 
253 
peculiar    properties 

of,  255 
preparation  of,  249- 

251 
properties    of,    247, 

248 

shrinkage  of,  254 
Barbedienne  on  brass,  298, 
299 


380 


INDEX. 


Bronze,  black  .eaa,  :>04,  305 
British  weapons  and  tools 

in,  171 

carbonate  of  iron,  305 
casting  of,  100-110 
chemical,  302,  303 
copper  and    brass,  substi- 
tutes for,  242-246 
Corinthian,  344 
deoxidized,  257,  258 
for  cannon,   statues,   etc., 

45 
foundries     of    Paris     and 

neighborhood,  100 
introduction  of  phosphorus 

into,  264,  265 
liquid,  green,  215 
manganese,  259,  260 
melting  of,  102,  103 
phosphor,  260-266 

varieties  of,  265,  266 
platinum,  266,  267 
silicon,  267,  268 
steel,  268,  269 
Syracuse,  344 
Tobin,  269 
Uchatius,  268,  269 
works,    French,    arrange- 
ment of,  100 
moulding  of,  101 
Bronzes,   some   modern,    247- 

269 
Bronzing  brass,  etc.,  211 

electrotype  casts,  302,  303 
fluid,  aniline,  298 
gun  barrels,  375 
Brunswick  black,  321 
Bullets,  casting  of,  54 
Burning-on,  161-163 

CANNON,  bronze  for,  45 
Carbonate  of  iron  bronze, 

305 

Case  hardening  iron,  338 
Cast-iron,    American     experi- 
ments on, 355 
bending  of,  1 63 


Cast-iron,  bright  gray,  357 

cement  for  the  joints  of, 

308 
changes  in,  by  chilling, 

136,  137 
chilled  wheel,  life  of  a, 

153,  154 
dark  gray,  358 
density  of,  359 
dull  gray,  357 
durability  of,  360-362 
gray,  properties  of,  356 
limit  of  elasticity  of,  356 
micaceous,  357 
mottled,  62,  03,  64,  357 
pipe,  head  of  water  sus- 
tained by  a,  370,  371 
resistance  of,  to  a  trans- 
verse strain,  365-369 
resistance  of,  to  exten- 
sion, 355,  356 
silvery,  357 
strength  of.  354-362 
varieties  of,  356 

white,  62,  63,  357 
metal  cylinders,  weight  of, 

218 
steel,   use     of   borax    for 

welding,  291 

Casting   and    moulding    large 
bells,    117- 
132 
of  brass  guns, 

58-60 
of  small  bells, 

113-117 
blown,  52 
brass  nuts  on  screws,  164, 

165 

chilled  rolls,  141-143 
figure,  60,  61 
figures    in     imitation    of 

ivory,   183 
in  bread  paste,  182 
in  glue,  181 
in  plaster,  173,  174 
in  sulphur,  180 


INDEX. 


381 


Casting  in  wax,  179,  180 

iron  and  other  metals  upon 
lace,  embroideries,  fern 
leaves  and  other  com- 
bustible materials,  165- 
168 

large  bells,  128-132 
of  alloys,  52-58 
of  aluminium  bronze,  254 
of  brass,  88-99 
of  bronze,  100-110 
of  bullets,  54 

on  to  other  metals,  15*7-164 
phenomena      in,    due     to 

shrinkage,  27 
suitability  of  metals  for,  25 
to   find  the  weight   of  a, 
from  that  of  the  pattern, 
26,  27 

vegetables,    insects,  small 
birds,  frogs,  fish,  etc.,  in 
plaster  moulds,  177 
without  core,  154-157 
Castings,  Bessemer  steel,  78 
chill,  136-154 
crucible  steel,  77,  78 
difficult,  core  for,  169 
heavy  cores  in,  168,  169 
hollow,  chill,  154 
malleable  iron,  62-69 
open  hearth  steel,  79-87 
repairing    holes    in,    163, 

164 
steel,  manufacture  of,  76- 

87 
wrought   iron     or    mitis, 

70-75 

Casts  and,  impressions  from  ex- 
isting works,  90 
electrotype,    bronzing   of, 

302,  303 

plaster,    to    transfer    en- 
gravings to,  175 
to  varnish,  175, 176 
Cement,  315 

lor  attaching  metal  to 
glass,  318 


Cement,  for  the  joints  of  cast 

iron,  308 
resisting  the  action  of  fire 

and  water,  307 
Chaplets  for  cores,  331 
Charcoal,  facing  of,  53 
use  of,  as  flux,  201 
Chemical  bronze,  302,  303 
Chill  castings,  136-154 

hollow,  154 
depth  of  the,  142,  143 
mould  for  a  railroad  wheel, 

143,  145 

Chilled  wheels,  manufacture  of, 
in  the  United  States, 
145-154 

Chinese  packfong,  206 
white  metals,  345 
Chlorides,  296 
Chlorine,  295,  296 
Church  peal,  a  complete,  113 
Cire-perdu  or  waste  wax  pro- 
cess, 105-107 
Cleansing   malleable   castings, 

64 
Cloisonn^    or  partition    work, 

103,  104 

Cohesion,  direct,  of  metals,  222 
specific,    and   strength    of 

metals,  220,  221 
Coin,  gold,  15 
silver,  15 

Collas,  M.  machine  for  the  re- 
duction or  enlargement 
of  solid  forms  by,  100, 
101 

Columbia  metal,  232,  233 
Compression,  348 

and     extension,    ultimate 
resistance     of    different 
materials  to,  349-351 
resistance  of  iron  to,  363- 

365 

Congealing   and    melting,    be- 
havior of  metals  and  al 
loys  in,  24-31 
Contraction  rules,  325,  326 


382 


INDEX. 


Copal  varnish,  japanners',  319 
Cope,  of  a  bell,  moulding  the, 

126,  127 

Cope  or  back  mould,  60 
Copper,  35,  36,  170,  206 
and  antimony,  207 
and  brass  vessels,  to  zinc, 

216 
and  tin  alloys,  properties 

of,  43,  44 

and  tin  mixtures,  46,  47 
and  tin,  properties  of  the 

atomic  alloys  of,  23 
and  zinc,  alloys  of,  47-49 
experimental  results 
as  to  the  properties 
of  atomic  alloys  of, 
22 

blanched,  171 
blistered,  37 

bronze  and  brass,  substi- 
tutes for,  242-246 
cast,  or  brass,  tinning  of, 

341 

flux  for,  201 
medals  and  medallions,  to 

make,  191,  192 
phosphide,  263,  264 
purifying  of,  35,  36 
reduction  of,  36,  37 

with    white    arsenic 

343 
refining  or  toughening  of 

37 

tin  and  iron  alloy,  344 
to  silver,  210 
zinc,  tin  and  lead,  alloys 

of,  49,  50 

Core,  casting  without,  154-157 
for  difficult  castings,  169 
insertion  of  a,  in  the  mould 

for  a  brass  casting,  94 
sands,  332,  333 
Cores,  black  wash  for,  332 
chaplets  for,  331 
for  difficult  jobs,  composi- 
tion for,  61 


Cores,  forms  of,  328,  329 

in  heavy  castings,  168, 169 
making  of,  94,  95 
rock  sand  for,  329 
stiffening  of,  330 
Corinthian  and  Syracuse  brass, 

171 

Corinthian  bronze,  344 
Cork-shavings,  facing  with,  53 
Cornish  reducing  flux,  338 

refining  flux,  337 
Cornwall,  tin  ore  in,  39,  40 
Corrosion,  prevention  of,  314 
Corrosive  sublimate,  296 
Cowles  Electric  Smelting  and 
Aluminium    Co.,    manufac- 
ture  of    aluminium   bronze 
by  the,  251-253 
Crown,   of   a    bell,    moulding 

the,  127 

Crucibles,  97,  281-284 
Crucible  steel  castings,  77,  78 
Crude  or  white  flux,  337 
Cupro-manganese,  259,  260 
Cylinders  and  rings,  strains  in, 

28-30 
cast  metal,  weight  of,  218 

D ALTON'S,  Dr.,  fusible  alloy , 
178 

Daniell,  Prof.,  on  the  protect- 
ing influence  of  zinc,  276 

Daniell's  cock,  228 

D'Arcet,  M.,  discovery  in  re- 
gard to  bell  metals  by,  45, 
46 

Decimal  proportions,  table  for 
converting  the,  into  divisions 
of  the  pound  avoirdupois,  204 

Delta  metal,  256,  257 

Deoxidized  bronze.  257,  258 

Detrusion,  349 

Deutsche  Delta  Metal  Gesell- 
schaft,  composition  of  Delta 
metal,  manufactured  by  the, 
257 

Deville,  St.  Claire,  experiment 


INDEX. 


383 


with  aluminium  for  bells  by, 
112 

Dies,  steel,  to  harden,  313 
Drawings,  colored,  varnish  for, 

319 

to  fix,  310,  311 
Ductility  and  malleability    of 

metals,  5,  6 
Dudley,  Chas.  B.,  analyses  of 

Tobin  bronze  by,  269 
Dumas,  M.,  experiments  on  the 
hardness  of  metals  by,  7 
on  zincking  by  immersion, 

273,  274 

of    iron    by    electro 
processes,  276,  277 

EARTHS,  alkaline,  12 
Elasticity,  limit  of,  347,  348 
Electricity,  resistance  of  metals 
to  conduction  of,  20,  21 
voltaic,  conducting  power 

of  metals  for,  20,  21 
Electrotype  casts,  bronzing  of, 

302,  303 
Embroideries,  casting  iron  and 

other  metals  upon,  165-168 
England,  large  bells  in,  199 
Engravings,  to  transfer  to  plas- 
ter casts,  175 
Equivalents  of  metals,  19 
Etching  varnish,  323 
Expansion  metal,  375 
Extension,  348,  349 

and  compression,  ultimate 
resistance    of    different 
materials  to,  349-351 
resistance  of  cast  iron  to, 
355,  356 

FACING,  53 
sand,  102 

Fahlun,  brilliants  of,  208 
Fenton's     anti-friction    metal, 

345 

Fern  leaves,  casting  iron  and 
other  metals  upon,  165-168 


Ferro-manganese,  259 
Figure  casting,  60,  61 
Fire  and  water,  cement  resist* 

ing  the  action  of,  307 
bricks,  96,  97 
clay,  96,  97 

artificial,  306,  307 
Fish,  frogs,  insects,  small  birds, 
vegetables,   etc,    to   cast   in 
plaster  moulds,  177 
Fixed  alkalies,  12 
Flask,  arrangement  of  ordinary 

brass  work  in  the,  91 
Fluidity,  202,  203 
Flute    valve   keys,   metal   for, 

231 

Flux,  black,  199,  200,  338 
common  black,  238 
Cornish  reducing,  338 
refining,  337 
crude  or  white,  337 
Fluxes,  199-201 
Fluxing  of  metals,  340,  341 
Fontainemoreau's   new   alloys 

of  zinc,  242-246 
Founding,  32,  33 
brass,  33-35 
of  bells,  57,  58,  110-135 
of  statues,  104-110 
Foundry   pig  No.    1,    or  gray 

metal,  62,  63 

Franklin  Institute,  experiments 
on  American    cast-iron 
by  the,  355 
Free  sand,  329 

French  bronze  works,  arrange- 
ment of,  100 
moulding  sands,  101 
polish,  320,  321 
type  metal,  233 
Friction,  196,  197 
Frogs,    .fish,      insects,      small 
birds,   vegetables,    etc, 
to  cast  in  plaster  moulds, 
177 

Furnace,    reverberatory,     130- 
132 


384 


INDEX. 


Furnaces,  brass  founders,   96, 

97 

Fusibility  of  metals,  8,  9 
Fusible  alloys,  178,  179 

metal,  1 5  , 
Fusing    and    melting    points, 

201,  202 
Fyfe's,  Dr,  analysis  of  Chinese 

packfong,  206 

nALVANIZING  or    zincking 
^f     by  immersion,  279 
German  silver,  234,  235 

titanium,  231 

GHdfers  and  jewelers'  work- 
shops, washing  ashes, 
sweepings,  etc.,  from, 
334-337 

Gilding  and  blueing  steel,  312 
Glass,    cement    for    attaching 

metal  to,  318 
soluble,  315 
Glue,  casting  in,  181 

for  casting  curious  medals, 

181,  182 

for  taking  impressions,  90 
liquid,  306 
portable,  314 
Gold  and  silver,  amalgams  of, 

194 

lace,   to    separate 

the   metallic 

portion  of,  311 

soldering  of,  225, 

226 

m.       solders,  224,  225 
artificial,  51 
coin,  15 

coin   of  America  alloy,  227 
ethereal  solution  of,  300 
green,  15 

hard  solder  for,  224 
leaf,    transmission    of    light 

by,  3 

Manheim,  50 
mosaic,  210,  211 
solder,  224 


Gold,  to  cleanse  after  soldering 

226 

Goslar  zinc,  206 
Graham,  Dr.,  on  the  protecting 

influence  of  zinc,  276 
Grain  tin,  38 

common,  39 
Gravity,  specific,  of  metals,  9, 

10,  19 
Gray    cast   iron,  properties  of, 

356 

Green  sand  mould,  92 
Gum  arabic  solutions,  to  pre- 
serve, 339 
Gun  barrels,  bronzed,  varnish 

for,  300 

bronzing  of,  375 
to  brown,  299 
Guns,  brass,  58-60 
Gutta-percha  for  taking  impres- 
sions, 90 


HARDENING  steel,  289 
Hardness  of  metals,  table 
showing  the,  7 
Heat  and  light,  reflection  of,  by 

polished  metals,  4 
conducting  of,  by  brass  and 

iron,  327 
contained     in    fluid   metals, 

202,203 
evolved  from  metals  by  an 

equal  current,  21 
Hessian  crucibles,  282 
Hodgkinson,    Mr.,  experiments 
on    bars    of    cold-blast 
iron,  by,  368,  369 
results  of  experiments  by, 
on     the     resistance     oi 
iron  to  compression,  364, 
365 

Holley,  Alexander  L.,.  on   open 

hearth  steel  castings,  79-83 

House  bells,  composition    for, 

110 
Hydrogen,  sulphuretted,  294 


INDEX. 


TMPRESSIONS  an.l  casts  from 
A     existing  works,  90 
Inkstands,  moulding  of,  54,  55 
Insects,  small  birds,  frogs,  fish, 
vegetables,   etc.,   to   cast  in 
plaster  moulds,  1*77 
Iron  and  brass,  conducting  heat 

of.  327 

other  metals,  casting  of, 
upon  lace,  embroider- 
ies, fern   leaves,   and 
other  combustible  ma- 
terials, 165-168 
tin,  209,  344 
zinc,  double  amalgam  of, 

194 
bars   of   cold-blast,    expert 

ments  on,  368,  369 
bright  gray  cast,  357 
carbonate  of,  bronze,  305 
case  hardening  of,  338 
cast,  American,  experiments 

on, 355 

bending  of,  163 
cement   for  the  joints  of, 

308 

density  of,  359 
durability  of,  360-362 
.      limit  of  elasticity  of,  356 
resistance  of,  to  extension, 

355,  356 

resistance  of,  to  a  trans- 
verse strain,  365-369 
strength  of,  354-362 
varieties  of,  356 
castings,  malleable,  62-69 
cause   of  the    corrosion    of, 

270,  271 
change  in,  by  chilling,  136, 

137 
combination  of  wrought  and 

cast,  159 

dark  gray  cast,  358 
dull  grey  cast,  357 
fluid,  advantages  of  an  ad- 
dition of  aluminium  to,  70, 
71    i  .*«  <i 


Iron,  gray  cast,  properties  of,3&6 

hot-blast  and  cold-blast,  359, 
360 

meteoric,  189 

micaceous  cast,  357 

mottled  cast,  62,  63,-64,  357 

oxide    of,    for  making   njal- 
leable  castings,  67-69 

pig,  classification  of,  62 

polished,  varnish  for,  339 

protection  of,  by  tin,  271     , 

qualities  of,  326,  327 

railings,    ornamentation    of, 
159-161 

resistance    of,    to   compres- 
sion, 363-365 

silvery  cast,  357 

solder  for,  22 7 

tin  and  copper  alloy,  344 

to  tin,  305,  306 

varnish  for,  339 

white  cast,  62,  63,  357     .     J 

wrought,   or  raids  castings. 
70-75 

zinc   as   a   protective  cover- 
ing for,  270-279 

zincking  of,  by  electro  pro- 
cesses, 276,  277". 
Ivory,  to  cast  figures  in   imi- 
tation of,  183 
silver,  216  ,"."/  ' 
soften,  311 

TAPANNERS'  copal  varnish, 

"      319 

Japanning,  316,  317 

Jewelers'    and    gilders'   work- 
shops,   washing  sweep- 
ings, ashes,    etc.,  from, 
334-336 
silver  solder  for,  226 

KANE,  Dr.,  on  the  Keller'8 
statue  composition,  205' 
Kirkaldy's  experimentson  phos- 
phor-bronze wire,  262,  263 
Klaproth,  experiments  of,  172 


386 


INDEX. 


Kneller,  W.  G.,  patent  for  the 
porificat  ion  of  zinc 
granted  to,  40,  41 

Kunzel  and  Montefiore's  ex- 
periments, 260-262 

LACE,  casting  iron  and  other 
metals  upon,  165-168 
gold  and  silver,  to    sepa- 
rate the  metallic  portion 
of,  311 
Lacquer,  deep  gold,  215 

colored,  212 
gold,  213 

colored,  212 
pale  brass,  214 

colored,  213 
tin,  214 
red,  213,  214 

colored,  212,  213 
white,  345,  346 
Lacquers,  212-215 
Lafond's  mixture  for  bells,  111 
Lead,  41 

and  bismuth,  208 

and  tin,   full   measure   of 

capacity  of,  208 
solder  for,  229 
Lee,  C.  A.,  on  the  strength  of 

materials,  347-354 
Light  and  heat,  reflection    of, 

by  polished  metals,  4 
transmission  of,  by  metals,3 
Limit  of  elasticity,  347,  348 
Liquid  glue,  306 
Lustre,  metallic,  2,  3 

MACHINE-framing,repairing 
of,  162,  163 
Malleability   and   ductility    of 

metals,  5,  6 

Malleable  iron  castings,  62-69 
Mallet,  Mr.  on   the  durability 

of  cast  iron,  360-362 
Manganese  bronze,  259,  260 
Manheim  gold,  50 
Masculyne,  Prof.  N.  on  arsenic, 

238 


Materials,  specific  gravity  and 

weight  of,  219 
strength  of,  347-354 
ultimate  resistance  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of,  349- 
351 

strength  of,  352, 353 
Medal  and  silver   plate   alloy, 

227 
Medallions  and  medals,  copper, 

to  make,  191,  192 
casting  of  in  plaster,  173, 

174 
Medals  and  medallions,  copper, 

to  make,  191,  192 
glue  for  casting,  181,  182 
moulds  of,  to  cast  on  tin- 
foil, 176 

Melting   and    congealing,    be- 
havior  of    metals    and 
alloys  in,  24-31 
and  fusing  points,  201,  202 
iron    for   malleable    cast- 
ings, 64 

points  of  metals,  19 
Mercury  and   zinc,    amalgam 

of,  15 

Metal,  Babbitt's  anti-friction, 
preparing  and  fitting, 
372-374 

balls,  weight  of,  217 
Berlin  type,  233,  234 
Britannia,  232 
cement  for   attaching,  to 

glass,  318 
Columbia,  232,  233 
Delta,  256,  257 
deposition   of  pure,    274, 

275 

expansion,  375 
Fenton's  anti-friction,  345 
for  bells,  melting  the,  129, 

130 

for  casting  vegetables,  in- 
sects, small  birds,  frogs, 
fish,  etc.,  in  plastei 
moulds,  178,  179 


INDEX. 


387 


Metal  for  flute  valve  keys,  231 

French  type,  233 

fusible,  15 

Sir  Isaac  Newton's,  178 

gray,  or  foundry  pig  No.  1, 
62,  63 

plates,  weight  of  a  square 
foot  of,  217 

Princess,  51 

Queen's,  209 

silvery-looking,  231 

speculum,  235-239 

type,  233,  234 

white,  230 
Metallic  acids,  12 

alloys,  14-18 

lustre,  2,  3 

moulds,  54,  55 

oxides,  12,297,  298 
poisonous,  13 

portion,  the,  of  gold  and 
silver  lace,  to  separate, 
311 

Metallurgy,  definition  of,  18 
Metals  and  alloys,  behavior  of, 
in  melting    and  con- 
gealing, 24-31 

iron,  casting  of,  upon  lace, 
embroideries,  fern  leaves 
and  other  combustible 
materials,  165-168 

anti-friction,  203 

brittleness  of,  170 

casting  on  to  other,  157- 
164 

Chinese  white,  345 

combination  of,  with  oxy- 
gen, 10-13 

conducting  powers  of,  for 
voltaic  electricity,  20,  21 

contraction  of,  pattern 
making,  etc,  325,  327 

crystalline  state  of,  4,  5 

direct  cohesion  of,  222 

discovery  of,  19 

electric  states  of,  271,  272 

enumeration  of,  19 


Metals,  equivalents  of,  19 

experiments  on  the  tenac- 
ity of,  342 
fluid,    heat   contained  in, 

202,  203 

fluxing  of,  340,  341 
friction  of,  196,  197 
fusibility  of,  8,  9 
heat  evolved  from,  by  an 

equal  current,  21 
malleability  and  ductility 

of,  5,  6 

melting  points  of,  19,  24 
native,  17 

odor  and  taste  of,  9 
order  and  facility  of  work- 
ing of,  43 
polished,  reflection  of  light 

and  heat  by,  4, 
properties  of  the,  1-13 
resistance  of,  to  pressure, 
223 

of,  to  torsion,  223, 

224 

to  the  conduction 
of  electricity  by, 
20,  21 

specific       cohesion       and 
strength       of, 
•  220,  221 
gravity  of,  9,  10, 

19 

surface  of,  171 
symbols  of,  19 
table  of  hardness  of,  7 

showing  the  order 
which  they  bear  to 
one  another  in  re- 
spect to  their  pro- 
perties, 6 
transmission  of  light  by 

3 

Meteoric  iron,  189 
Mirrors,  brass,  170 
Mitis  castings,  details  of  the 

production  of,  72-75 
metal,  analyses  of,  73,  74 


388 


INDEX. 


Mitis  plant  in  the  United  States, 
mixture     for     melting, 
used  in  a,  72,  73 
or  wrought  iron  castings, 

70-75 
Modelling  and  pattern-making 

for  brass  work,  88,  89 
Models,  wax,  moulding  of,  57 
Montefioreand  Kiinzel's  experi-" 

ments,  260-262 
Mordant  varnishes,  321,  322 
Morin's  invention  for  the  com- 
bination   of    wrought    and 
cast-iron,  159 
Mosaic  gold,  210,  211 

mixture,  231 

Moscow,  large  bells  of,  198, 199 
Mottled  cast-iron,  62,  63, 64, 357 
Mould,  green  sand,  92 

insertion  of  a  core  in  the, 

for  a  brass  casting,  94 

Moulding   a   chilled    roll,    the 

journals    of   which    are 

to  remain  soft,  139-141 

and    casting    large    bells, 

117-lb2 
of  brass  guns,  58- 

60 
of  small  bells,  113- 

117 

large  bells,  123-128 
malleable  castings,  64 
materials  for,  52,  53 
of  bronze  works,  101 
of  complex  objects,  56 
of  statues,  105-110 
of  steel  eastings,  86,  87 
plate,  92-94 
requirements  for,  33 
sand,  333 
sands,  French,  101 
the  bell  in  an  upright  po- 
sition, 115,  116 
in   inverted   position, 

116,  117 

cope  and  crown  of  a 
bell,  '26,  127 


Moulding  tub,  for  small  brass 

work,  90,  91 
wax  models,  57 
Mouldings,  modelling  of,  90 
Moulds  for  chill-castings,  138 
metallic,  54,  55 
method  of  filling  the,  55,  56 
of  medals  to  cast  on  tin  foil, 

176 

plaster,  to  cast  vegetables, 
insects,  small  birds,  frogs, 
fish,  etc.,  in,  177 
sand,  formation  of,  52 
Music  plates,  15 

"VTAILS,  ship,  composition  for, 

small,    etc.,    to  coat  with 

tin,  301 

Native  metals,  17 
Natron,  297,  298 
Newton's,    Sir     Isaac,    fusible 

metal,  178 

Niellos-metallic  ornaments,  308 
309 

ODOR  and  taste  of  metals,  9 
Open-hearth    steel     cast- 
ings, 79-87 

Ore,  definition  of  an,  17 
Ores,  occurrence  of,  18 

reduction  of,  18 
Orichalcum,  205 
Ormolu,  210,  211 
Ornaments,  composition  for,  184 

niello-metallic,  308,  309 
Outerbridge,  A.  E.,  Jr.,  process 
of  casting  iron  and  other 
metals  upon  lace,  embroider- 
ies, fern  leaves,  and  other 
combustible  materials,  by, 
165-168 

Ovens,  annealing,  66,  67 
Oxides,  metallic,  12,  297,  298 

poisonous,  13 

Oxygen,  combinations  of  metals 
with,  10-13 


INDEX. 


389 


PACKFONG,  Chinese,  206 
Paper,  tracing,  309 
Paris,  bronze  foundries  in,  100 
Parsons,  P.  M.,  manufacture  of 

manganese  bronze  by,  259 
Partition    or    cloisonne    work, 

103,  104 

Pattern -making  and  modelling 
for  brass  work, 
88,89 

contraction  of  met- 
als, etc.,  325-327 
to  find  the  weight  of  a  cast- 
ing from  that  of  a,  26,  27 
Patterns,  dimensions  of,  25 

wooden,  varnishing  of,  90 
Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola,  in- 
vention of  bells  by,  198 
Peal,  church,  a  complete,  113 
Peals  of  bells,  weight  of  a  few, 

133,  134 

Pellat,  F.,  on  zinc  as  a  protec- 
tive covering  for  iron,  270- 
279 

Percy,  Dr.,  experiments  on  al- 
loys for  bells,  by,  111,  112 
Permanent  set,  348 
Pewter,  14,  207 

compositions  of,  230 
pots,  moulding  of,  54,  55 
Phosphide  of  tin,  264 
Phosphor-bronze,  260-266 

varieties    of,    265, 

266 

wire,  tenacity  and 
ductility  of,  262, 
263 
Phosphorus,     introduction    of, 

into  bronze,  264,  265 
Pig,    foundry,   No.   1,  or   gray 

metal,  62,  63 

Pig-irou,  classification  of,  62 
Pinchbeck,  14,  50 
Pipe,  cast-iron,  head  of  water 

sustained  by  a,  370,  371 
Pipes,  water  in,  280     - 
Plaster,  casting  in,  173,  174 


Plaster   casts,  to  transfer    en- 
gravings to,  175 
to  varnish,  175,  176 
moulds,  to  cast  vegetables, 
insects,  small  birds,  frogs, 
fish,  etc.,  in.  177 
of  Paris,  52,  53 
to  east  moulds  of  metals  on 

tin-foil  with,  176 
Plate  moulding,  92-94 
Platina,  239 

amalgamation  of,  194 
Platinum  bronze,  266,  267 
Plumbago,  284 
Plumber's  solder,  230 
Polish,  French,  320,  321 
Pouillet,    researches     on     the 
conducting  power  of  metals, 
by,  20 

Pound   avoirdupois,    table    for 

converting  the  decimal  p'ro- 

portions  into  divisions  of  the, 

204 

Pressure,  resistance  of  metals, 

to,  223 

static,  of  water,  369-372 
Princess  metal,  51 
Printing  types,  15 

moulding  of,  54,  55 
Protecting    influence    of   zinc, 

275,  276 
Pulley,  strain  in  the  rim  of  a, 

27,  28 

Pyrometer,  Prof.  Daniel's,  fus- 
ing and  melting  points  as- 
certained by,  201,  202 


Q 


UEEN'S  metal,  209 


RAILINGS,  wrought-iron,or 
namentation  of,  159-161 
Railroad  frog,  chilled  portions 
of  the  tongue  of  a,  138, 
139 

wheel,  chill-mculd   for  a 
143,  145 


890 


INDEX. 


Rattle-barrel  or  tumbler,  64 
Reduction  of  ores,  18 
Resistance  of  iron  to  compres 

sion,  363-365 
ultimate,  of  different  kinds 

of  materials,  349-351 
Reverberator/  furnace,  130-132 
Rice  glue  statuary,  183,  184 
Riley,    E.,    analyses   of  mitis- 

metal  by,  73,  74 
Rings  and  cylinders,  strains  in, 

28-30 

Rock  sand  for  cores,  329 
Roll,  chilled,  moulding  a,  139- 

141 
Rolls,  chilled,  casting  of,  141- 

143 

repairing  necks  of,  162.  163 
Rose's  alloy,  178 
Rosse,  Lord,  speculum    metal 

used  by,  46,  47 
Rottenstone,  facing  of,  53 
Rust,  to  preserve  polished  steel 
from,  318 


SAL-EXINUM,  201 
Sand-burning,  55 
Sand  core  moulding,  blacken- 
ing, etc.,  328-333 
facing,  102 
free,  329 

moulds,  formation  of,  52 
rock,  for  cores,  329 
Screws  casting  brass  nuts  on, 

164,  165 

Sea  salt,  composition  of,  296 
Sdenium,  294,  295 
Set,  permanent,  348 
Ship  nails,  composition  for,  345 
Shrinkage,  26 

holes  in  steel  castings,  87 
in  steel  castings,  85,  86 
of  aluminium  bronze,  254 
of  brass  castings,  89 
phenomena  in  casting  due 
to,  27 


Shrinkages,   general    laws   of, 

30,  31 

Silicon  bronze,  267-268 
Silver  and  gold,  amalgams  of, 

194 

lace,  to  separate 

the       metallic 

portion  of,  311 

soldering  of,  225, 

226 

solders,  224,  225 
3oin,  15 

German,  234,  235 
leaf,   transmission  of  light 

by,  3 

metal,  imitation,  338 
plate  and  medal  alloy,  227 
solder  for  jewelers,  226 
solders  for,  224,  225 
steel,  207 
to  cleanse,  after  soldering, 

226 
Silvering  brass,  363 

composition  for,362 
ivory,  216 
of  copper,  210 
Soda,  297,  298 
Soft  solders,  229 
Solder,  brass,  225 
fine  brazing,  51 
for  iron,  227 
for  lead,  229 
plumber's,  230 
silver  for  jewelers,  226 
soft,  soldering  fluid  for,  374 
Soldering,  autogenous,  228 
fluid  for  soft  solder,  374 
gold  and  silver,  225,  226 
Solders,  gold  and  silver,  224,225 
•      soft,  229 
Soluble  glass,  315 
Spanish  titanium,  232 
Specific  gravity  and  weight  ot 

materials,  219 
of  metals,  19 

Speculum  metal,  14,  188,  235- 
23? 


INDEX. 


391 


Speculum  metal  as  used  by 
Lord  Rosse,  46, 
47 

Speculums,  making  of,  238 
Standard,  repairing  of  a,  162, 

163 

Statuary,  rice  glue,  183,  184 
Statue    composition,    Keller's, 

205 

moulding,     cire-perdu      or 
waste  wax  process  of, 
105-107 
modern  process  of,  108- 

110 
Statues,  bronze  for,  45 

founding  of,  104-110 
Steel,  annealing  of,  285-288 
Bessemer,  castings,  78 
blueing  and  gilding  of,  312 
bronze,  268,  269 
cast,  use  of  borax  for  weld- 
ing, 291 
castings,  blow  holes  in,  83- 

85 
change  in  the  chemical 

constitution  of,  86 
final,    additions    in,   82, 

83 

furnace  for,  79,  80 
initial  bath  for,  80 
manufacture  of,  76-87 
mechanical  pressure  for, 

86 
metal  tests  before  final 

additions  in,  81,  82 
moulding  of,  86,  87 
rising  head  for,  86 
shrinkage  holes  in,  87 
shrinkage  in,  85,  86 
slag  tests  in,  81 
softening     or     refining 

materials  for,  81 
stripping  of,  86 
crucible,  castings,  77,  78 
dies,  to  harden,  313 
hardening  of,  289 
open-hearth  castings,  79-87 


Steel,     polished,    to     preserve 

from  rust,  318 
silver,  207 
Strain  in  the  rim  of  a  pulley 

27,  28 

transversal,  349 
transverse,   theory   of  the 

365 
Strains  in  rings  and  cylinders, 

28-30 

Stream  tin,  38 
Strength  and  specific  cohesion 

of  metals,  220,  221 
of  iron,  354-362 
of  materials,  347-354 
ultimate,  of  materials,  352, 

353 
ultimate,    of   wood,    353, 

354 
Stucco  for  taking  impressions 

90 
Sulphur,  292-294 

to  cast  in,  180 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  294 
Sulphurous  acid,  293 
Sweepings,    ashes,    etc.,   from 
brass  foundry  furnaces,  gild- 
ers' and  jewelers'  workshops, 
etc.,  washing  of,  H34-337 
Symbols  of  metals,  19 
Syracuse  and  Corinthian  brass, 

171 
bronze,  344 

TABLE  by  which  to  find  the 
weight  of  a  casting  from 
that  of  the  pattern,  27 
for  converting  decimal  pro- 
portions into  divisions  of 
the     pound    avoirdupois, 
204 
of  direct  cohesion  of  metals, 

222 

of  experimental  results  as 
to  the  properties  of  the 
atomic  alloys  of  copper  and 
zinc,  22 


392 


INDEX. 


Table  of  hardness  of  metals,  7 
of  resistance  of  iron  to  com- 
pression, 365 
of  metals  to  pressure, 

223 
iM-1    .'to  torsion, 223, 

224 

of    specific      cohesion     and 
v;  .'  strength    of    met- 

als, 220,  221 
gravity    and  weight 

of  materials,  2 19 
of  the  ultimate  resistance  of 
different  kinds   of  materi- 
als to  extension  and  com- 
pression, 349-351 
showing  head  of  water  sus- 
tained by  a  cast  iron 
pipe,  371 

results  of  experiments  on 
bars  of  cold  blast 
iron,  369 

of   experiments     on 

the     strength     of 

short  cylinders  of 

timber,  352 

the   amount  of  friction 

of  metals,  196,  197 
the  discovery,  specific, 
gravity,  melting 
points,  equivalents 
and  symbols  of  met- 
als, 19 

the  heat  evolved  by  an 
equal     current    from 
different  metals,  21 
the    order     which    the 
metals    bear   to     one 
another  in  respect  to 
their  properties,  6 
the    properties    of     the 
atomic  alloys  of  cop- 
per aud  tin,  23 
the  quantity  and  weight 
of  water  in  pipps,  280 
the  tenacity  of   metals. 
342 


Table  of  the  weight  of  castraetal 

cylinders,  218 

of    metal     balls, 

tt*'«jS 

plates,  217 

Taste  and  odor  of  metals,  9 
Telegraph  wire,  silicon  bronze, 

composition  of,  268 
Telephone  wire,  silicon  bronze, 

composition  of,  268    or.; 
Tellander,  F.,  process   for  hoi- 
low    chill-castings   patented 
by,  154 
Temper,  44 
Tempering,  materials  for,  329, 

330 

Tenacity    of    metals,     experi- 
ments on  the,  342 
Thompson,  L.,  method  of  puri- 
fying  copper    invented    by, 
33,  36 

Timber,    experiments    on    the 
strength   of  short  cylinders 
of,  352 
Tin  and  antimony,  copper  and 

bismuth,  207 

and  copper  mixtures,  46,  47 
properties      of      the 
atomic  alloys  of,  23 
and  iron,  209,  344 
and  lead,  full  measure  of  ca- 
pacity of,  208      •<.; 
and  zinc,  209,  343 
block,  38,  39 
common  grain,  H9. 
East  Indian,  38,  39 
foil,  15 

to  cast  moulds  of  medals 

on,  176 
grain,  38 

iron,  and  copper  alloy,  344 
or  bedil,  37-39 
ore  in  Cornwall,  39,  40 
phosphide  of,  264 
protection  of  iron  by,  271 
reduction  of,  grain  and  block 
.tin,  39,  40 


INDEX, 


393 


Tin  stone,  38 
stream,  38 
to  coat  small  nails,  etc., 

with,  301 
Tinning  of  cast  copper  or  brass, 

341 

of  iron,  305,  306 
Titanium,  German,  231 

Spanish,  232 
Tobin  bronze,  269 
Tombac,  varieties  of,  328 
Tools  and  weapons,  British,  in 

bronze,  17 1 
Torsion,  349 

resistance  of  metals  to,  223, 

224 

Tracing  paper,  309 
Transversal  strain,  349 
Trinket  composition,  227 
Tumbler  or  rattle-barrel,  64 
Tutenag,  375 
Type  metal,  233,  234 
Types,  printing,  15 

moulding  of,  54,  55 
small,  metal  for,  234 

UCHATIUS  bronze,  268,  269 
United   States,  manufac- 
facture  of  chilled  wheels 
in  the,  145,  154 
United     States,     mixture     for 
melting  used  in  a 
Mitis     plant     in 
the,  72,  73 
standard    measure, 
alloy  for  the,  374 

"I7ARNISH,  etching,  323 
V      flexible,  320 

for   browned    gun    barrels, 
.300 

for   colored    drawings.  319 

for  iron,  339 

for  polished  iron,  339 

hard,  320 

japanners'  copal,  319 

plaster  casts,  to,  175,  17fi 


Varnish,  soft,  319 

superior  green  transparent, 

322,323 

Varnishes,  mordant,  321,  322 
Vegetables,        insects,      small 
birds,  frogs,  fish,  etc.,  to  cast 
in  plaster  moulds,  177 
Veins,  18 

WASTE  wax,  or  cire-perdu 
process,  105-107 
Water  and  fire,  cement  resist- 
ing the  action  of,  307 
head  of,  sustained  by  a  cast 

iron  pipe,  370,  371 
in  pipes,  280 

static  pressure  of,  369-372 
Watkins,  A.  E.,  on  the  general 

laws  of  shrinkages,  30,  31 
Wax,  casting  in,  179,  180 
models,  moulding  of,  57 
waste,  or  cire-perdu  process, 

105-107 
Weapons  and  tools,  British,  in 

bronze,  171 
Weight  and  specific  gravity  of 

materials,  219 
Wheel,  cast  iron  chilled,  life  of 

a,  153,  154 

Wheels  chilled,  manufacture  of, 
in  the  United  States,  145- 
154 

White  cast  iron,  62,  63,  357 
lacquer,  345,  346 
metal,  230 

Window    frames,    iron,  manu- 
facture of,  159 

Wires,  silicon  bronze,  composi- 
tion of,  268 

Wittenstroem  and  Nobel,  inven- 
tion by,  70 
Wood,    ultimate    strength    of, 

353, 354 
Works,    existing,    impressions 

and  casts  from,  90 
Wrought  iron    or   mitis    cast* 
ings,  70-75 


394 


INDEX. 


Wrought  iron  railings,  orna- 
mentation of, 
159-161 

BELLOW  brass,  190 


ZINC,  40,  41 
and  copper,  experimental 
results  as  to  the  prop- 
erties of  atomic  alloys 
of,  22 
and   iron,   double   amalgam 

of,  194 
and  mercury,  amalgam   of, 

15 
and  tin,  209,  343 


Zinc  as  protective  covering  for 
iron,  and  adaptation  of  the 
process  of  electro-deposi- 
tion for  that  purpose,  270- 
279 

destruction  of,  272,  273 
Fontainemorau's  new  alloys 

of,  242-246 
Goslar,  206 
purification  of,  40,  41 
Zincking,  216 

by  immersion,   M.  Dumaa 

on,  273,  274 

by  immersion  or  galvaniz- 
ing, 279 

iron  by  electro  processes, 
276,  277 


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Paris.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  To  which  if 
added  an  Appendix,  containing  InformaJJne  rejecting  the  Material 
and  the  Practice  of  Coach  and  Car  Painting  U*d  Varnishing  in  tht 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  I2mo.  .  .  . 

(I) 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


4RMENGAUD,  AMOROUX,  AND  JOHNSON.— The  Practl 
cal  Draughtsman's  Book  of  Industrial  Design,  and  Ma- 
chinist's and  Engineer's  Drawing  Companion  : 
Farming  a  Complete  Course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and  Archi 
tectural  Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  the  elder, 
Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  ami  Industry,  Paris,  and 
MM.  Armengaud  the  younger,  and  Amoroux,  Civil  Engineers.  Re- 
written and  arranged  with  additional  matter  and  plates,  selections  from 
and  examples  of  the  most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism 
of  the  day.  By  WILLIAM  JOHNSON,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood-cuts.  A  new  edition,  410  , 

cloth. $6.00 

ARMSTRONG. — The  Construction  and  Management  of  Steam 

Boilers  : 

By  R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.  With  an  Appendix  by  ROBERT  MALLET, 
C.  E.,  F.  R.  S.  Seventh  Edition.  Illustrated,  i  vol.  I2mo.  .60 

ARROWSMITH.— The  Paper-Hanger's  Companion: 

Comprising  Tools,  Pastes,  Preparatory  Work  ;  Selection  and  Hanging 
of  Wall- Papers  ;  Distemper  Painting  and  Cornice-Tinting  ;  Stencil 
Work ;  Replacing  Sash -Cord  and  Broken  Window  Panes  ;  and 
Useful  Wrinkles  and  Receipts,  By  JAMES  ARROWSMITH.  A  New, 
Thoroughly  Revised,  and  Much  Enlarged  Edition.  Illustrated  by 
25  engravings,  162  pages.  (1905)  .  •  '  .  •  $1.00 

A.SHTON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Designing 

Fancy  Cotton  and  Woollen  Cloths  from  Sample  : 
Giving  full  instructions  for  reducing  drafts,  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
spooling  and  making  out  harness  for  cross  drafts  and  finding  any  re- 
quired reed;  with  calculations  and  tables  of  yarn.  By  FREDERIC  T. 
ASHTON,  Designer,  West  Pittsfield,  Mass.  With  fifty-two  illustrations. 
One  vol.  folio  ':»<  .,:  ..i  ^iv  .  ;V  ^  '..-•:  *:  #5-°° 

fcSKINSON.— Perfumes  and  their  Preparation  : 
A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  Complete 
Directions  for  Making  Handkerchief  Perfumes,  Smelling-Salts, 
Sachets,  Fumigating  Pastils ;  Preparations  for  the  Care  of  the  Skin, 
the  Mouth,  the  Hair;  Cosmetics,  Hair  Dyes,  and  other  Toilet 
Articles.  By  G.  W.  ASKINSON.  Translated  from  the  German  by  ISIDOR 
FURST.  Revised  by  CHARLES  RICE.  32  Illustrations.  8vo.  $3.00 

BRQNGNIART.— Coloring  and  Decoration  of  Ceramic  Ware. 
8vc #2-5° 

BAIRD.— The  American  Cotton  Spinner,  anc    Manager's  and 

Carder's  Guide: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning ;  giving  the  Dimensions  and 
Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calculations,  etc.;  with 
notices  of  recent  Improvements :  together  with  Rules  and  Examples 
ibr  making  changes  in  the  sizes  and  numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn. 
Compiled  from  the  paper*  <>f  the  late  ROBERT  H.  BAIRD.  ismo. 

*«  50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BAKER. — Long-Span  Railway  Bridges  : 

Comprising  Investigations  of  the  Comparative  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Advantages  of  the  various  Adopted  or  Proposed  Type 
Systems  of  Construction  ;  with  numerous  Formulae  and  Tables.  By 
B.  BAKER.  i2mo.  .......  $1.00 

BRAN  NT. — A    Practical    Treatise  on   Distillation  and  Rec- 
tification of  Alcohol : 

Comprising  Raw  Materials  ;  Production  of  Malt,  Preparation  of 
Mashes  and  of  Yeast ;  Fermentation  ;  Distillation  and  Rectification 
and  Purification  of  Alcohol  ;  Preparation  of  Alcoholic  Liquors, 
Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  Fruit  Essences,  Vinegar,  etc. ;  Examina- 
tion of  Materials  for  the  Preparation  of  Malt  as  well  as  of  the  Malt 
itself ;  Examination  of  Mashes  before  and  after  Fermentation  ;  Alco- 
holometry,  with  Numerous  Comprehensive  Tables  ;  and  an  Appendix 
on  the  Manufacture  of  Compressed  Yeast  and  the  Examination  of 
Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Liquors  for  Fusel  Oil  and  other  Impurities. 
By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor  of  "  The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt 
Book."  Second  Edition.  Entirely  Rewritten.  Illustrated  by  105 
engravings.  460  pages,  8vo.  (Dec. ,  1903)  .  .  .  $4.00 

8  AKR.  —  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal : 
Including  descriptions  of  various   mechanical  devices  for  the  Eco- 
nomic Generation  of  Heat  by  the  Combustion  of  Fuel,  whether  solid, 
liquid  or  gaseous.    8vo.    .......         $2. 50 

B  ARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  High  Pressure  Steam  Boilers: 
Including  Results  of  Recent  Experimental  Tests  of  Boiler  Materials, 
together  with  a  description  of  Approved  Safety  Apparatus,  Steam 
Pumps,  Injectors  and  Economizers  in  actual  use.  By  WM.  M.  BARR. 
204  Illustrations.  8vo $3.00 

BAUERMAN.— A  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron  : 

Containing  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  Methods  of 
Assay,  and  Analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  Processes  of  Manufacture  of  Iron 
and  Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  BAUERMAN,  F.  G.  S.,  Associate  of  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Illustrated  with  numerous  Wood  Engravings  from  Drawings  by  J.  B. 
JORDAN.  i2mo, $2.0® 

BRANNT.— The  Metallic  Alloys  :  A  Practical  Guide 

For  the  Manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  Alloys,  Amalgams,  and  Solders, 
used  by  Metal- Workers  :  together  with  their  Chemical  and  Physical 
Properties  and  their  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries  ;  with 
an  Appendix  on  the  Coloring  of  Alloys  and  the  Recovery  of  Waste 
Metals.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  34  Engravings.  A  New,  Re- 
vised, and  Enlarged  Edition.  554  pages.  8vo.  .  .  $4.50 

BEANS. — A  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and   Location  of 

Railroads : 
By  E.  W.  BEANS,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     I2mo.     Tucks.     .        #1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BELL. — Carpentry  Made  Easy: 

Or,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Framing  on  a  New  and  Improved 
System.  With  Specific  Instructions  for  Building  Balloon  Frames,  Barn 
Frames,  Mill  Frames,  Warehouses,  Church  Spires,  etc.  Comprising 
also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building,  with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and 
valuable  Tables.  Illustrated  by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  .nearlv 
200  figures.  By  WILLIAM  E.  BELL,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 

8vo. $5.00 

BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting  and  Perforated  Carving: 

With  fifty-three  practical  illustrations.     By  W.  BEMROSE,  JR.     I  vol. 
quarto        ..........         $2.50 

BEMROSE.— Manual  of  Buhl-work  and  Marquetry: 

With  Practical  Instructions  for  Learners,  and  ninety  colored  designs, 
By  W.  BEMROSE,  JR.     i  vol.  quarto  .         .         .         .         $3.00 

BEMROSE. -Manual  of  Wood  Carving: 

With  Practical  Illustrations  for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and 
Selected  Designs.  By  WILLIAM  BEMROSE,  JR.  With  an  Intro- 
duction by  LLEWELLYN  JEWITT,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  illustra- 
tions, 4to. $2.50 

BERSCH.— Cellulose,  Cellulose  Products,  and  Rubber  Sub- 
stitutes : 

Comprising    the    Preparation    of    Cellulose,    Parchment-Cellulose, 
Methods  of  Obtaining  bugar,  Alcohol  and  Oxalic  Acid  from  Wood- 
Cellulose  ;     Production    of  Nitro-Cellulose    and   Cellulose    Esters ; 
Manufacture  of  Artificial  Silk,  Viscose,  Celluloid,   Rubber    Substi- 
tutes, Oil-Rubber,  and  Faktis.     By  DR.  JOSEPH  BERSCH.     Trans- 
lated by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.     41  illustrations.      (1904.)     $3.00 
BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and  Various 
Modes  of  Use.     By  E.   R.   BILLINGS.     Illustrated  by  nearly  200 
engravings.     8vo.      .          .          .          .          .          .          .  $3.00 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers'  Companion  : 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and  Chemicals 
used  in  Dyeing,  their  Natures  and  Uses  ;  Mordants  and  How  Made  ; 
with  the  best  American,  English,  French  and  German  processes  for 
Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  Linen,  Flannel,  Felt, 
I  )ress  Goods,  Mixed  and  Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur, 
Wool,  and  Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins, 
Furs,  Leather,  etc.,  etc.  By  Wood  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  instructions  in  the 
Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water-Proofing  of 
Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water,  Manufacture  of  Aniline 
and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmonizing  Colors,  etc.,  etc.  ;  embrac- 
ing in  all  over  800  Receipts  for  Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by 
170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw  Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  BIRD, 
Practical  Dyer,  Author  of  "The  Dyers'  Hand-Book."  8vo.  $7.50 


HENRY  CAREY   BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BLINN. — A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet* 

tron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers; 

Containing  Rules  Tor  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns  used  by 
Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper-plate  Workers;  Practical  Geometry; 
Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  Tables  of  the  Weights  of 
Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc.;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumference* 
of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lackers,  Cements,  Compositions,  etc., 
etc.  By  LEROY  J.  BLINN,  Master  Mechanic.  With  One  Hundred 
and  Seventy  Illustrations.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  #2.50 

BOOTH.— Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  general,  theii 
Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing ;  Veneering  of  Marble  ;  Mosaics ; 
Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble,  Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts, 
Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  L.  BOOTH. 
With  an  Appendix  concerning  American  Marbles.  I2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 

BRANNT.— A   Practical   Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetablf 

Fats  and  Oils : 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils,  their  Physical  and  Chem- 
ical Properties  and   Uses,  the   Manner  of   Extracting  and   Refining 
them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them;  as  well  as  the  Manufac- 
ture of  Artificial  Butter  and  Lubricants,  etc.,  with  lists  of  American 
Patents  relating  to  the  Extraction,  Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing, 
and  Bleaching  of  Fats  and  Oils.     By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor 
of  the  "  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book."     Second  Edition,  Revised 
and  in  a  great  part  Rewritten.     Illustrated  by  302  Engravings.     In 
Two  Volumes.     1304  pp.     8vo.      .         .         .         .         .         $10.00 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Soap 

and  Candles  : 

Based  upon  the  most  Recent  Experiences  in  the  Practice  and  Science  ; 
comprising  the  Chemistry,  Raw  Materials,  Machinery,  and  Utensils 
and  Various  Processes  of  Manufacture,  including  a  great  variety  of 
lormulas.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  C.  Deite,  A. 
lingelhardt,  Dr.  C.  Schaedler  and  others ;  with  additions  and  lists 
of  American  Patents  relating  to  these  subjects.  By  WM.  T.  BRANNT. 
Illustrated  by  163  engravings.  677  pages.  8vo.  .  .  $10.00 

BRANNT. — India  Rubber,  Gutta-Percha  and  Balata  : 

Occurrence,  Geographical  Distribution,  and  Cultivation,  Obtaining 
and  Preparing  the  Raw  Materials,  Modes  of  Working  and  Utilizing 
them,  Including  Washing,  Maceration,  Mixing,  Vulcanizing, Rubber 
and  Gutta-Percha  Compounds,  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.  By  WILL*- 
JAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  (1900.)  .  .  $3.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BRANNT— WAHL.— The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

Containing  several  thousand  Receipts  covering  the  latest,  most  im- 
portant, and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology,  and 
their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier- 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Roller  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  T. 
BRANNT  and  WM.  H.  WAHL,  Ph.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings. 
I2mo.  495  pages $2.00 

BROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements  : 
Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics,  Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam  Engines,  Mill  and  other 
Gearing,  Presses,  Horology,  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery  ;  and  in- 
cluding many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 
which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.  By  HENRY  T.  BROWN. 
I2mo.  .  .  .  .....  $1.00 

BUCKMASTER.— The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics : 
By  J.  C.   BUCKMASTER.       Illustrated    with    numerous   engravings. 
I2mo.        ..........         $1.00 

BULLOCK. — The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 
A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People ;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
Drainage,  Painting  and  Landscape  Gardening.  By  JOHN  BULLOCK, 
Architect  and  Editor  of  "  The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
B,uilding,"  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  75  engravings.  8vo.  $2.50 

BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building : 
For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,   Draughtsmen,   Machinists,  En- 
gineers and  Mechanics.     Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK,  author  of  "  The 
American  Cottage  Builder."   Illustrated  by  250  Engravings.  8vo.  $2.50 

BURGH. — Practical    Rules    for    the    Proportions   of     Modern 

Engines  and  Boilers  for  Land  and  Marine  Purposes. 
By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer.     I2m<>.  ...         $1.50 

BYLES  — Sophisms    of    Free    Trade   and    Popular    Political 

Econ  my  Examined. 

By  a  BARRISTER  (SiR  JOHN  BARNARD  BYLES,  Judge  of  Common 
Pleas).  From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published  by  the 
Manchester  Reciprocity  Association.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 

to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes: 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colorists.     By  F.  H.  Bow- 

•   MAN,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.     Illustrated  by  32  engravings. 
8vo #7.50 

BYRNE.— Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi- 
neer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools,  Abrasive 
Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  Engraving,  Varnishing 
and  Lackering,  Apparatus,  Materials  and  Processes  for  Grinding  and 


HENRY  CAREY  BA1RD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Polishing,  etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  Illustrated  by  185  wood  en- 
gravings. 8vo. $5.00 

3YRNE. — Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers: 
Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out  Railroad 
Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings;  the  Staking  out  of 
work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings:  Embankments;  Earth- 
work, etc  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  i8mo.,  full  bound,  pocket-book 
form $1.50 

bYRNE.— The  Practical  Metal- Worker's  Assistant : 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all  Metals 
and  Alloys  ;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and  Tempering; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding ;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals ;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
workers. With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
the  works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Piumier,  Napier, 
Scoffern,  Clay,  Fairbairn  and  others.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  A  new, 
revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con- 
taining  The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet- Iron.  By  JOHN  PERCY, 
M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and 
Improvements  in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating  every 
Branch  of  the  Subject.  8vo $5.00 

PYRNE.— The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  Naval 
Archkect,  Miner  and  Millwright.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  8vo.,  nearly 
TOO  pages (Scarce.) 

'  \RINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE. 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture* 
Ulustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo.  .  .  .  .  .  •„  .  $1.50 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  Complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  JAMES 
CALLINGHAM.  To  which  are  added  Numerous  Alphabets  and  the 
Art  of  Letter  Painting  Made  Easy.  By  JAMES  C.  BADENOCH.  258 
pages.  I2mo .^.50 

CAMPIN.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work. 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observation 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  BV  R. 
ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.,  and  JOHN  BOURNE.  (bcarc*»  ] 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CG.'S  CATALOGUE. 


CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  DR.  WM.  ELDER,    With  a  portrait.     8vo.,  cloth         .         .        75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :    Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer 
cial.     8vo.  .....  .  $*.25' 

Manual  of  Social  Science.  Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principles 
of  Social  Science."  By  KATE  McKEAN.  I  vol.  I2mo.  .  $2.00 
Miscellaneous  Works.  With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  £10.00  v 

Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo $2.50^ 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $7.50 
The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign;  Why  it  Exists,  and 
How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).  8vo.  .  .  .  #2.00 
The  Unity  of  Law :  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).  8vo.  .  .  #2.50 

CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working : 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex- 
haustive analysis  of  the  various  modes  of  traction,  including  horse- 
power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  the 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
penses.  By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK.  Illustrated  by  over  200  vrood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plates.  I  •vol.  8vo.  .  $5.00 

COLBURN. — The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man 
agement.  By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS. — The  Eden  of  Labor ;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 
By  T.  WHARTON  COLLENS,  author  of  "  Humanics,"    "  The  Historj 
of  Charity,"  etc.     I2mo.     Paper  cover,  $1.00;  Cloth          .         $1.25 

COO  LEY. — A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery : 
Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Article* 
With   a  Comprehensive    Collection  of  Formulae.     By   ARNOLD  ]. 
COOLEY.    lamo $1.50 

COOPER. — A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  tbe  Tranfc- 

mission  of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar- 
ranging Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fasten 
ings.  Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cal- 
culating the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Mamgement  or 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
JOHN  H.  COOPER,  M.  E.  8vo $3.50 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  M^ler. 
By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Millwright.     Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings and  two  folding  plates.     8vo.  .         .  (Scarce.) 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  9 

CROSS. — The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner  : 

Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Differem 
Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hitherto  been 
practiced;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from  which  we  make  all 
our  Changes.  By  RICHARD  CROSS.  122  pp.  I2mo.  .  75 

CRISTIANI. — A.  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 
With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.     By  R.  S.  CRIS- 
TIANI, Chemist.     Author  of  "  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."     Illus- 
trated by  176  engravings.     581  pages,  8vo.  $15.00 

COURTNEY. — The  Boiler  Maker's  Assistant  in  Drawing, 
Templating,  and  Calculating  Boiler  Work  and  Tank 
Work,  etc. 

Revised  by  D.  K.  CLARK.     102  ills.     Fifth  edition.     .         .        80 
COURTNEY.— The  Boiler  Maker's  Ready  Reckoner: 

With  Examples  of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating.  Revised  by 
D.  K.  CLARK,  C.  E.  37  illustrations.  Fifth  edition.  •  $1.60 

DAVIDSON.— A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain- 
ing, Marbling,  and  Sign- Writing: 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  ic 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  J2tno. 

$2.00 

DAVIES.— A  Treatise  on  Earthy  and  Other    Minerals   and 

Mining: 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated  by 
76  Engravings.  I2mo .  $5.00 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 
By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S  ,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.  Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,  Mining  Operations  and  Machineiy,  drawn  from  the 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised 
and  much  Enlarged  by  his  son,  E.  Henry  Davies.  I2mo.,  524 
pages .  $5.00 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 

Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining  Engineer,  etc.  With  numerous  illustrations  and  folding 
plates.  ;2mo. .  .  $1.20 

DAVIS. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Brick, 

Tiles  and  Terra-Cotta  : 

Including  Stiff  Clay,  Dry  Clay,  Hand  Made,  Pressed  or  Front,  and 
Roadway  Paving  Brick,  Enamelled  Brick,  with  Glazes  and  Colors, 
Fire  Brick  and  Blocks,  Silica  Brick,  Carbon  Brick,  Glass  Pots,  Re- 


jo          HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGl)*,. 

torts,  Architectural  Teira-Cotta,  Sewer  Pipe,  Drain  Tile,  Glazed  and 
Unglazed  Roofing  Tile,  Art  Tile,  Mosaics,  and  Imitation  of  Intarsia 
or  Inlaid  Surfaces.  Comprising  every  product  of  Clay  employed  in 
Architecture,  Engineering,  and  the  Blast  Furnace.  With  a  Detailed 
Descripiion  of  the  Different  Clays  employed,  the  Most  Modern 
Machinery,  Tools,  and  Kilns  used,  and  the  Processes  for  Handling,. 
Disintegrating,  Tempering,  and  Moulding  the  Clay  into  Shape.  Dry- 
ing, Setting,  and  Burning.  By  Charles  Thomas  Davis.  Third  Edi- 
tion. .Revised  and  in  great  part  rewritten.  Illustrated  by  261 
engravings.  662  pages  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  £12.50 

DAVIS. — A  Treatise  on  Steam-Boiler  Incrustation  and  Meth- 
ods for  Preventing  Corrosion  and  the  Formation  of  Scale: 
By  CHARLES  T.  DAVIS      Illustrated  by  65  engravings.     Svo. 

DAVIS. — The  Manufacture  of  Paper: 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrication, 
Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Paper,  Including  the  Dif 
ferent  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their  Values, 
ihe  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical  Details  connected  with  an  intelli- 
gent and  a  profitable  prosecution  of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to 
the  best  American  Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Pa- 
per, complete  Lists  of  Paper- Making  Materials,  List  of  American 
Machines,  Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials, 
and  in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  CHARLES  T. 
DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  156  engravings.  608  pages,  Svo.  #6.00 

DAVIS. — The  Manufacture  of  Leather: 

Being  a  Description  of  all  the  Processes  for  the  Tanning  and  Tawing 
with  Bark,  Extracts,  Chrome  and  all  Modern  Tannages  in  General 
Use,  and  the  Currying,  Finishing  and  Dyeing  of  Every  Kind  of  Leather ; 
Including  the  Various  Raw  Materials,  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all 
Details  of  Importance  Connected  with  an  Intelligent  and  Profitable 
Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American 
Practice.  To  which  are  added  Lists  of  American  Patents  (1884-1897) 
for  Materials,  Processes,  Tools  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying, 
etc.  By  CHARLES  THOMAS  DAVIS.  Second  Edition,  Revised,  and 
in  great  part  Rewritten.  Illustrated  by  147  engravings  and  14  Sam- 
ples of  Quebracho  Tanned  and  Aniline  Dyed  Leathers.  Svo,  cloth, 
712  pages.  Price $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY-BRANNT.-A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Gelatine 
Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc. : 

Bnsed  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Technical 
Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive  additions, 
including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  American  Processes,  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  2d  revised  edition,  350  pages.  (1905.) 
Price  ..........  $J.oo 

DE  GRAFF. — The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders'  Guide: 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  k» 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Stee 
Engravings;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  pcmcii'1" 
•>(  Practical  Geometry  By  SIMON  !)»«:  GRAKF.  Architect  (^cuj  ..i 


HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &  CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        il 

DE  KONINCK— DIETZ.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Chemical 
Analysis  and  Assaying : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  DH 
KONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  America* 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A, 
FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.50 

UNCAN.— Practical  Surveyor's  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  coim 
mon  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Revised.  72  engravings,  214  pp.  I2mo.  $1.50 

DUPLAIS.— A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Distillation 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho 
del,  Fruits,  etc. ;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy, 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aro« 
malic  Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 
Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc,«  etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  DuPLAlSf 
By  M.  McKENNiE,  M.  D.  Illustrated.  743  pp.  8vo.  $15.00 

DYER  AND  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION: 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Colors,  on 
the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles  and  fabrics  now 
in  evistence ;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and  plain  Directions  for 
Preparing,  Washing-ofF,  and  Finishing  the  Goods.  I2tno.  $i  oo 

BIDHERR. — The  Techno-Chemical  Guide  to  Distillation: 
A  Hand-Book  for  the  Manufacture  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Liquors, 
including  the  Preparation  of  Malt  and  Compressed  Yeast.     Edited 
from  the  German  of  Ed.  Eidherr. 

EDWARDS. — A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 
For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS,  Mechanical  Engi- 
neer. Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings,  including  examples  of 
the  most  modern  Engines.  Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with 
much  additional  matter.  12  mo.  414  pages  .  .  .  ^2  oo 

hD WARDS. — Modern  American  Loccmotive  Engines, 
Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.     By  EMORY  EDWARDS*, 
Illustrated  I2mo $2.00 

EDWARDS.— The  American  Steam  Engineer: 

Theoretical  and  Practical,  with  examples  of  the  latej:  and  most  ap- 
proved American  practice  in  the  design  and  construction  of  Steam 
Engines  and  Boilers.  For  the  use  of  engineers,  machinists,  boiler- 
makers,  and  engineering  students.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  Fully 
Uiustrated,  419  pages.  I2mo.  -  |2.JJ0 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S   CATALOGUE. 


EDWARDS.— Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  and 
Screw  Propellers, 

Their  Design  and   Construction.     Showing  the  Present   Practice  ot 
the  most   Eminent  Engineers  and   Marine  Engine   Builders  in  the 
United  States.    Illustrated  by  30  large  and  elaborate  plates.  4to.  $5.00 
EDWARDS.— The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide 

In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
Portable,  and  Steam  Fire- Engines,  Steam  Pumps,  Boilers,  Injectors, 
Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  and  Steam 
Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By 
EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  A2O  pages. 

I2mo $^50 

EISSLER. — The  Metallurgy  of  Silver  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Amalgamation,  Roasting,  and  Lixiviation 
of  Silver  Ores,  including  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of 
Silver  Bullion.  By  M.  EISSLER.  124  Illustrations.  -•  336  pp. 

I2mo $4.25 

ELDER. — Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 

Economy. 
By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.     8vo.       ...  .        12.50 

ELDER. — Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.     By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.     8vo.      .     $3.00 
ERNI  AND  BROWN.— Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Identifying  Minerals,  including  Ores,  by  Means  of 
the  Blow-pipe,  by  Flame  Reactions,  by  Humid  Chemical  Analysis, 
and  by  Physical  Tests.     By  HENRI  ERNI,  A.  M.,  M.  D.     Third  Edi- 
tion, revised,  re-arranged  and  with  the  addition  of  entirely  new  matter, 
including  Tables  for  the  Determination  of  Minerals  by  Chemical  and 
Pyrognostic   Characters,  and  by  Physical  Characters       By  AMOS  P. 
BROWN,  E.  M.,  Ph.  D.    350  pp.,  illustrated  by  96  engravings,  pocket- 
book  form,  full  flexible  morocco,  gilt  edges       .          .          .          $2.50 
FAIRBAIRN.  -  The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 

of  Transmission  : 

Comprising    the    Principles    of  Mechanism,   Wheels,    and    Pulleys, 
Strength  and  Proportion  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engag- 
ing and  Disengaging  Gear.     By   SIR  WILLIAM  FAIRBAIRN,  Bart. 
C.    E.       Beautifully    illustrated   by   over    150   wood-cuts.      In   one 
volume,   I2mo.         ........          $2.00 

FLEMING. — Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America  : 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives,  Cars,  etc.  By 

HOWARD  FLEMING.     Illustrated,  8vo $1.00 

FORSYTH. — Book  of  Designs  for  Headstones,  Mural,  and 

other  Monuments  : 

Containing  78  Designs.     By  JAMES  FORSYTH,     With  an  Introduction 
by  CHARLES  BOUTELL,  M.  A.     410.,  cloth       .         .         .         $3.50 
FRIEDBERG.     Utilization   of  Bones   by  Chemical    Means; 
especially  the  Modes   of  Obtaining    Fat,  Glue,  Manures, 
Phosphorus  and  Phosphates. 
Illustrated.     8vo.      (In  preparation.) 


HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        13 


FRANKEL—  HUTTER.—  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu* 
facture  of  Starch,  Glucose,  Starch-Sugar,  and  Dextrine: 

Based  on  the  German  of  LADISLAUS  VON  WAGNER,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  High  School,  Buda-Pest,  Hungary,  and  other 
authorities.  By  JULIUS  FRANKEL,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUTTER,  Chemist,  Practical 
Manufacturer  of  Starch-Sugar.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  cover- 
ing every  branch  of  the  subject,  including  examples  of  the  most 
Recent  and  Best  American  Machinery.  8vo.,  344  pp.  $6.00 

GARDNER.  —  The  Painter's  Encyclopaedia  : 
Containing  Definitions  of  all  Important  Words  in  the  Art  of  Plain 
and  Artistic  Painting,  with  Details  of  Practice  in  Coach,  Carriage, 
Railway  Car,  House,  Sign,  and  Ornamental  Painting,  including 
Graining,  Mafbling,  Staining,  Varnishing,  Polishing,  Lettering, 
Stenciling,  Gilding,  Bronzing,  etc.  By  FRANKLIN  B.  GARDNER. 
158  Illustrations.  I2mo.  427  pp.  .....  $2.06 

GARDNER.  —  Everybody's  Paint  Book: 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Outdoor  and  Indoor  Painting.  38 
illustrations.  I2mo,  183  pp  .....  .  $1.00 

GEE.  —  The   Jeweller's    Assistant  in  the   Art  of  Working  in 

Gold: 
A  Practical  Treatise  for  Masters  and  Workmen.     I2mo.      . 


GEE.  —  The  Goldsmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col- 
lecting, and  Refining;  the  Processes  of  Manipulation,  Recovery  of 
Waste;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Gold;  with  a  New 
System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys;  Solders,  Enamels,  and  other  Useful 
Rules  and  Recipes.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  I2mo.  0  .  $1.25 

GEE.  —  The  Silversmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting  the  Metal;  its 
Solders  ;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys  ;  Methods  of  Manipula- 
tion ;  Prevention  of  Waste  ;  Instructions  for  Improving  and  Finishing 
the  Surface  of  the  Work  ;  together  with  other  Useful  Information  and 
Memoranda.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  Si.  25 

GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.     Twenty-three  plates.     Oblong  $1.5° 

GRANT.  —  A  Handbook  on  th6  Teeth  of  Gears  : 
Their  Curves,  Properties,  and  Practical  Construction.     By  GEORGE 
B.  GRANT.     Illustrated.     Third  Edition,  enlarged.     8vo.          $1.00 

GREENWOOD.—  Steel  and  Iron: 

,  Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
sued in  their  Manufacture,  and  of  their  Treatment  in  the  Rolling. 
Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  WILLIAM  HENRY  GREEN- 
WOOD.  F.  C.  S.  With  97  Diagrams,  536  pages.  I2mo.  $1-75 


14       HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men : 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and 
Civil  Engineers.  By  OLINTHUS  GREGORY.  8vo.,  plates  $3.00 

GRISWOLD.— Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  thi 

Field: 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles 
Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En 
gineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En- 
gineer, together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By 
W.  GRISWOLD.  i2mo.,  tucks $1.50 

X5RUNER. — Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  o$ 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  -Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  Appendix,  by  L.  D. 
B.  GORDON,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  #2.50 

Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmer  and 

Mechanic: 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board  Meas. 
ure,  Plank,  Scantling  and  Timber  Measure ;  Wages  and  Rent,  by 
Week  or  Month ;  Capacity  of  Granaries,  Bins  and  Cisterns ;  Land 
Measure,  Interest  Tables,  with  Directions  for  Finding  the  Interest  on 
any  sum  at  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  per  cent.,  and  many  other  Useful  Tables. 
32  mo.,  boards.  186  pages .2J 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 

and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  an<i  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  HASERICK.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yarni 
or  fabrics.  8vo £5-oo 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical  Hattei; 
Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  $1.00 

HERMANN.— Painting  on  Glass  and  Porcelain,  and  Enamel 

Painting: 

A  Complete  Introduction  to  the  Preparation  of  all  the  Colors  and 
Fluxes  Used  for  Painting  on  Glass,  Porcelain,  Enamel,  Faience  and 
Stoneware,  the  Color  Pastes  and  Colored  Glasses,  together  with  a 
Minute  Description  ot  the  Firing  ot  Colors  and  Enamels,  on  tht 
Basis  of  Personal  Practical  Experience  of  the  Art  up  to  Date.  18 
illustrations.  Second  edition.  .  •  •  •  . 

HAUPT.— Street  Railway  Motors: 

With  Descriptions  and  Cost  of  Plants  and  Operation  of  the  Variouf 
Systems  now  in  Use.  I2t*<V  ,  $1-75 


HBNRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.        15 

HAUPT. — A  Manual  of  Engineering  Specifications  and  Con- 
tracts. 

By  LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  numerous  maps. 
328pp.  8vo $3  oo 

HAUPT. — The  Topographer,  His  Instruments  and  Methods. 
By  LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  A.  M.,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  numerous 
plates,  maps  and  engravings.  247  pp.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

HUGHES.— American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant: 

*  By  WILLIAM  CARTER  HUGHES.    i2mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich ;  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst ;  the  Indian  Civil  En- 
gineering College,  Cooper's  Hill ;  Indian  Public  Works  and  Tele- 
graph Departments ;  Royal  Marine  Light  Infantry  ;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marlborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 

examples.     Small  quarto $i.$ 

EKVIS.— Railroad  Property: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi 
cers,  and  Agents.  By  JOHN  B.  JERVIS,  late  Civil  Engineer  of  the 
Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  etc.  i2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 

KEENE.— A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging : 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla 
tion,  describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom- House  foi 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  JAMES  B.  KEENE,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo. $l.oo 

KELLEY.— Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 

Financial  Questions : 
By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.     544  pages,  8vo.  .        $2.50 

KELLOGG.— A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  and 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from  Financial  Revulsions. 
By  EDWARD  KELLOGG.  i2mo.  Paper  cover,  $1.00.  Bound  in 

cloth $1.25 

KEMLO.— Watch- Repairer's  Hand-Book : 
Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart, 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.     By  F.  K.EULO, 
Practical  Watchmaker.     With  Illustrations.     I2mo.  $1.25 


t6          HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

KENTISH. — A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Log* 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMA? 
KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  i2mo.  ....  $i.oc 

KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual: 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  BRUNO  KERL,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Second  American  edition,  edited  with  Ex- 
tensive Additions  by  F.  LYNWOOD  GARRISON,  Member  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  etc.  Illustrated  by  87  en- 
gravings. 8vo.  (Third  Edition  in  preparation. ) 

KICK.—Flour  Manufacture. 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice.  By  FREDERICK  KICK 
Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Technology  in  tht 
imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute,  Prague.  Translated  from 
the  second  enlarged  and  revised  edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H. 
P.  POWLES,  Assoc.  Memb.  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated 
with  28  Plates,  and  167  Wood-cuts.  367  pages.  8vo.  .  $10.00 

^INGZETT. — The   History,  Products,  and  Processes  of  the 

Alkali  Trade : 

including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.  By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
Kivr.zETT.  Consulting  Chemist.  With  23  illustrations.  8vo.  $2.39 

KIRK. — The  Cupola  Furnace: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Foundry 
Cupolas.  By  EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Moulder  and  Melter,  Con* 
suiting  Expert  in  Melting.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  Second 
Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  450  pages.  8vo.  1903.  $3.50 
LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel: 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  JR.  From  the  French,  by  A.  A. 

FESQUET.     I2mo #2.50 

LANGBEIN.— A   Complete  Treatise  on  the  Electro-Deposi. 

tion  of  Metals : 

Comprising  Electro-Plating  and  Galvanoplastic  Operations,  the  De- 
position of  Metals  by  the  Contact  and  Immersion  Processes,  the  Color- 
ing of  Metals,  the  Methods  of  Grinding  and  Polishing,  as  well  as 
Descriptions  of  the  Electric  Elements,  Dynamo-Electric  Machines, 
Thermo- Piles  and  of  the  Materials  and  Processes  used  in  Every  De* 
partment  of  the  Art.  From  the  German  of  DR.  GEORGE  LANGBEIN; 
with  additions  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised 
and  much  enlarged.  1 70  Engravings.  694  pages  8vo.  1905.  $4.00 

GARDNER. — The  Steam-Engine  : 
For  the  Use  of  Beginners.     Illustrated.     I2mo.    •         •         •        60 

LEHNER.— The  Manufacture  of  Ink: 

Comprising  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  Preparation  df  Writing, 
Copying  and  Hektograph  Inks,  Safety  Inks,  Ink  Extracts  and  Pow- 
ders, etc.  Translated  from  the  German  of  SIGMUND  LFHNER,  with 
additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  12010.  #2.00 


rfENRY   CAREY    BA1RD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE         17 

LARKIN. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder's  Guide j 
A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improvements  in  thfl 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  By 
JAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass  Foundry  Department  i« 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.  New  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.  414  pages.  121110.  .  $2.$& 

LEROUX.— A    Practical     Treatise    on    the    Manufacture    of 

Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns  : 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of 
CHARLES  LEROUX,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  th« 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Artisans  selected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  on  Woolea 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Uni« 
versal  Exposition,  1867.  8vo.  $5.00 

CEFFEL. — The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams : 
Comprising  also  the  Building  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankments 
And  Head-Gates,  the   Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 
Supply,  etc.     By  JAMES  LEFFEL  &  Co.    Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 
8vo .         .  (Scarce.) 

LESLIE. — Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss  LESLIE. 
Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 
Receipts.  I2mo.  ...  .  $1-$° 

LE  VAN.— The  Steam  Engine  and  the  Indicator : 

Their  Origin  and  Progressive  Development ;  including  the  Most 
Recent  Examples  of  Steam  and  Gas  Motors,  together  with  the  Indi- 
cator, its  Principles,  its  Utility,  and  its  Application.  By  WILLIAM 
BARNET  LE  VAN.  Illustrated  by  205  Engravings,  chisfly  of  Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469  pp.  8vo.  ......  $2.00 

LIEBER. — Assayer's  Guide  ; 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  all 
tb  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  as»d  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIEBER.  Revised.  283  pp.  I2m<,.  $1.50 

ix>ckwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms  : 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  embracing  those 
Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turn- 
ing, Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  comprising  upwards  of  Six 
Thousand  Definitions.  Edited  by  a  Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author 
of  "  Pattern  Making."  417  pp.  I2mo.  .  ,  .  $J,75 


18         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

LUKIN.— The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses : 

Or  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  lurning  Wood  and  Metal.  Including 
n  Description  of  the  Most  Modern  Appliances  for  the  Ornamentation 
of  Plane  and  Curved  Surfaces,  an  Entirely  Novel  Form  of  Lathe 
for  Eccentric  and  Rose-Engine  Turning;  A  Lathe  and  Planing 
Machine  Combined ;  and  Other  Valuable  Matter  Relating  to  the 
Art.  Illustrated  by  462  engravings.  Seventh  edition.  315  pages. 

Svo #4-25 

MAIN  and  BROWN.— Questions  on  Subjects  Connected  with 

the  Marine  Steam-Engine ; 

And    Examination    Papers;    with    Hints    for    their    Solution.     By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal   ""tfaval  College, 
and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.    I2mo.,  cloth  .       $1.00 
MAIN  and  BROWN. — The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 
With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.     By  THOMAS 
J.   MAIN,   M.   A.  F.  R.,   Ass't    S.   Professor   Royal   Naval   College, 
Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.     Illustrated.     Svo.  . 
MAIN  and  BROWN.— The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 
By  THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal    Naval    College,   Portsmouth,  and   THOMAS    BROWN,  Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.     Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval 
College.     With  numerous  illustrations.     Svo.  ..';••, 

MAKINS.— A  Manual  of  Metallurgy: 

By  GEORGE  HOGARTH  MAKINS.  100  engravings.  Second  edition 
rewritten  and  much  enlarged.  I2mo.,  592  pages  .  .. 

WARTIN.— Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanic*) 

Engineers : 

Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  iVheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Screws  of  any  Required  Pitch;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni 
versal  Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  MARTIN,  Engineer. 
Svo .50 

MICHELL.— Mine  Drainage: 

Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under 
ground  Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  large 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  th« 
Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  Pumping  Machinery.  By  STEPHEN 
MICHELL.  Illustrated  by  247  engravings.  8vo.,  369  pages.  Si 2  50 

MOLESWORTH — Pocket-Book   of    Useful    Formulae    and 
Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
By  GUILFORD  L.  MOLESWORTH,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.     Full- 
bound  in  Pocket-book  form       .         .         «        -        .        .         $l.oo 


HENRY  CAREY  RAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  T9 


MOORE.— The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete  Ml 

chanic : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipt*, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Etc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household  to  the  Manufactory.  By 
R.MoORE.  Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  ; 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numerous 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Examples,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten- 
sive Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  Mean  Areas, 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork 
By  ELWOOD  MORRIS,  C.  E.  8vo $1.50 

MAUCHLINE.— The  Mine  Foreman's  Hand-Book 

Of  Practical  and  Theoretical  Information  on  the  Opening,  Venti 
lating,  and  Working  of  Collieries.  Questions  and  Answers  on  Prac- 
tical and  Theoretical  Coal  Mining.  Designed  to  Assist  Students  and 
Others  in  Passing  Examinations  for  Mine  Foremanships.  By 
ROBERT  MAUCHLINE.  3d  Edition.  Thoroughly  Rfvised  and  En- 
larged by  F.  ERNEST  BRACKETT.  134  engravings,  8vo.  378  pages. 
('90S) #3.75 

WAPIER.— A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 
By  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi- 
tion. Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar 'Colors,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  0,1  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus 
trated.  8vo.  422  pages  .......  $>oo 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formula,  to> 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers ; 

Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons;  general  infor 
nation  on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Wa;e» 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  Bv  TOHN  NEVTI.LK.  C.  E.  M  P 
1.  A. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thicl 
I2mo #5.50 

NEWBERY.—  Gleanings     from     Ornamental     Art    of     every 

style : 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  ioa 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  B* 
ROBERT  NEWBERY.  410.  ......  (Scarce,  j 

tf  ICHOLLS.  -The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  an* 

Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Labot 
Foremen  a-*l  Working  Boiler-Makers.  Iroa,  Copper,  and  Tinsmiths 


20         HENRY  CAREY  BA1RD  &  CO.'b  CATALOGUE. 


Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public,  and  lor  th* 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  SAMUEL  NICHOLLS.  Illus 
trated  by  sixteen  plaies,  1 2mo. $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 
Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.     Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Paper.     By  JAMES  B.  NICHOLSON.     Illustrated.  I2mo.,  cloth     $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Ra.l- 
way  Construction  and  Equipment.  By  WILLIAM  J.  NICOLLS,  Civil 
Engineer.  Illustrated,  full  bound,  pocket-book  form  .  $2.00 

NORMANDY.— The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An. 

alysis : 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  01 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.  By  A.  NORMANDY.  .  New  Edition,  Enlarged,  and 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.  By  HENRY  M.  NOAD,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
thick  I2mo.  . Scarce 

NORRIS. — A  Handbook  for  Locomotive   Engineers  and  Ma- 
chinists : 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco- 
motives;  Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tables  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Areas, 
etc.,  etc.  By  SEPTIMUS  NORRIS,  M.  E.  New  edition.  Illustrated, 
I2mo $1.50 

NYSTROM. — A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics  : 
Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the   Meaning  of  Dynamical   Terms 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  and   Me 
trology.     By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     8vo. 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construe- 

tion  of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  lau 
Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi 
tional  matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  engravings,  izmo.  .  $1.2$ 

O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 
Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  fhe  Substances  and   Processes  ii> 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.     By  CHARLEC  O'NEILL,  Analy 
tical  Chemist.     To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  ano 
dieir  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.     By  A.  A.  FESQUET^ 
Chemist  and  Engineer.     With  an   appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calic 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,   1867      8vo.. 
491  pages  .  $3.00 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determinate  n 
mf  ail  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  JAME* 
O«TUN,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
N.  Y  ;  author  of  the  "  Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edi- 
tion, with  An  Appendix  on  Ore  Deposits  and  Testing  Minerals  (1901). 
Illustrated  .  .  .  .....  $1.50 


HENRY    CAREY    BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        21 


OSBORN.-— The  Prospector's  Field  Book  and  Guide. 

In  the  Search  For  and  the  Easy  Determination  of  Ores  and  Other 
Useful  Minerals.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  OSBORN,  LL.  D.  Illustrated  by  66 
Engravings.  Sixth  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged.  360  pages, 

I2mo.      (Dec.,  1903) $1.50 

OSBORN — A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and  Min 

ing: 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic. Positions,  Local  Occur- 
rence and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals;  their  M*ethods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay  ;  together  with  Various  Systems  of  Ex- 
cavating and  Timbering,  Brick  and  Masonry  Work,  during  Driving, 
Lining,  Bracing  and  other  Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  OSBORN, 
LL.  D.,  Author  of  "  The  Prospector's  Field- Book  and  Guide."  171 
engravings.  Second  Edition,  revised.  8vo.  .  .  .  $4-5° 
OVERMAN.— The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel. 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Workers  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard- 
ware, of  Slt'el  and    Iron,  and  for   Men   of  Science  and   Art.     By 
FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  "  Manu- 
facture of  Iron,"  etc.     A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.     By 
A.  A.  FESQTJ£T,  Chemist  and  Engineer.     I2mo.         .         .         $1.50 
OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry-sand,  Loam, 
and  Cement ;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow- 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals;   Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur. 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  M.elting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals  ;  the  Composition  of   Alloys  nnd  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.     By   FREDERICK  OVERMAN,   M.   E.     A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  addled  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.     By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chen> 
ist  and  Engineer.     Illustrated  by  44  engravings.     I2mo.    .         $2.00 
PAINTER,  GILDER.  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION. 
Comprising  the  Manufacture  and  Test  of  Pigments,  the  Arts  of  Paint- 
ing, Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Sign  writing.  Varnishing,  Glass- 
staining,  and   Gilding  on  Glass;   together  with  Coach  Painting  and 
Varnishing,   and  the    Principles    of  the  Harmony  and  Contrast  of 
Colors.     Twenty-seventh  Edition.     Revised,  Enlarged,  and  in  great 
part  Rewritten.     By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor  of  "  Varnishes, 
Lacquers,  Printing  Inks  and  Sealing  Waxes."     Illustrated.     395  pp. 

I2mo.  , £1.50 

PALLETT. — The  Miller's,  Millwright's, and  Engineer's  Guide. 
By  HENRY  PALLETT.     Illustrated.     i2mo.       .        .         .        £2.00 


22          rfENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

PERCY.— The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 

By  JOHN  PERCY,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.     Paper.       .        .        .        25  cts. 
PERKINS.— Gas  and  Ventilation: 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.    Illustrated.    I2mo.    $1.25 
PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 

and  Boiler  Plate  Roller  : 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to*  produce  Sheet-iron ;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gauge 
in  decimals;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch";  the  Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  112  Ibs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 

#1.50 
POSSELT.— Recent  Improvements  in  Textile  Machinery  Re- 

lating  to  Weaving : 

Giving  the  Most  Modern  Points  on  the  Construction  of  all  Kinds 
of  Looms,  Warpers,  Beamers,  Slashers,  Winders,  Spoolers,  Reeds, 
Temples,  Shuttles,  Bobbins,  Heddles,  Heddle  Frames,  Pickers, 
Jacquards,  Card  Stampers,  etc.,  e,tc.  600  illus.  .  .  $3  oo 
POSSELT. — Technology  of  Textile  Design: 

The  Most  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Application 
of  Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics  and  the  Analysis  of  Cloth.  By  E. 

A.  Posselt.     1,500  illustrations.     410 $5-OO 

POSSELT. — Textile  Calculations: 

A  Guide  to  Calculations   Relating  to  the  Manufacture  of  all  Kinds 
of  Yarns  and  Fabrics,  the  Analysis  of  Cloth,  Speed,  Power  and  Belt 
Calculations.     By  E.  A.  POSSELT.     Illustrated.     410.        .         $2.00 
REGNAULT. — Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FORREST 
BETTON,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WILLIAM  L.  FABER,  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood-engravings.  Com- 
prising nearly  1,500  pages.  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  #6.00 
RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its  History,  Occurrence,  Properties,  Metallurgy  and  Applications, 
including  its  Alloys.  By  JOSEPH  W.  RICHARDS,  A.  C.,  Chemist  and 
Practical  Metallurgist,  Member  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesell- 
schaft.  Illust.  Third  edition,  enlarged  and  revised  (1895)  •  $6.00 
RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSA7NT.— A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting : 
Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials ;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use;  Dryers;  the 
Testing.  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM. 
RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.  Revised  and  Edited  Dy  M. 


HENRY   CAKbk    tfAlKL)  &  CO.  S  CATALOGUE. 


F.  MALEPEYRE.    Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A. 

Chemist  and  Engineer.     Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.     In  one 

vol.,  8vo.,  659  pages          .......        IS'°° 

ROPER.  —  Catechism  for  Steam  Engineers  and  Electricians: 
Including   the    Construction  and  Management   of   Steam    Engines, 
Steam  Boilers  and  Electric  Plants.     By  STEPHEN  ROPER.     Twenty- 
first  edition,  rewritten  and   greatly  enlarged  by  E.  R.  KELLER  and 
C.  VV.  PIKE.     365  pages.     Illustrations.      i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt.     $2.00 

ROPER.—  Engineer's  Handy  Book: 

Containing  Facts,  Formulae,  Tables  and  Questions  on  Power,  its 
Generation,  Transmission  and  Measurement;  Heat,  Fuel,  and  Steam; 
The  Steam  Boiler  and  Accessories  ;  Steam  Engines  and  their  Parts  ; 
Steam  Engine  Indicator;  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines;  Materials; 
their  Properties  and  Strength  ;  Together  with  a  Discussion  of  the  Fun- 
damental Experiments  in  Electricity,  and  an  Explanation  of  Dynamos, 
Motors,  Batteries,  etc.,  and  Rules  for  Calculating  Sizes  of  Wires.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER.  151!!  edition.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  E.  R. 
KELLER,  M.  E.  and  C.  W.  PIKE,  B.  S.  (1899),  with  numerous  illus- 
trations. Pocket-book  form.  Leather  .....  $3-5° 

ROPER.  —  Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 
Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,   Running,  and  Management 
of  Lanr1  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.     With  frustrations.     By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.    Sixth  edition.     I2mo.,tx'cks,  gilt  edge. 

#3-5c 

ROPER.—  Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  $2.50 

ROPER.—  Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines. 
With  illustrations.     By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     Fourth  edition, 
1  2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge       .         .         .         .         ....         $3-50 

ROPER.  —  Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 
This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or- 
dinary intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Third  edition  .  .  .  #2.00 

ROPER.—  Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 

By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Eighth  edition,  with  illustrations. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  ......  .  $2.oc 

ROSE.—  The  Complete  Practical  Machinist  : 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  and 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  Machine  Tools,  etc.  By  JOSHUA 
ROSE.  395  Engravings.  Nineteenth  Edition,  greatly  Enlarged  with 
New  and  Valuable  Matter.  1  2mo.,  504  pages.  ....  .  $250 

ROSE.  —  Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught  : 

Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Tnstruments.  Elementary  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Draw- 


*4         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical 
Motions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  330  engravings.  8vo  ,  313  pages  •:<*.*••.  . . .'  ••..£  »  $4.00 

ROSE. — The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  th, 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrat- 
ing the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  care- 
fully  selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By 
JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  .  $i.oa 

ROSS. — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology: 
Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Work- 
ing Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  LIEUT.- 
COLONEL  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.  With  120  Illustrations, 
I2tno.  .  .  .  ;.  .....  .  #2.0O 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con- 
taining  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDWARD  SHAW, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  THOMAS  W.  SILLOWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.  4t<>.  ...  .  .  .  .  $6.00 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 

By  W.  F.  SHUNK,  C.  E.  I2mo.  Pull  bound  pocket-book  form  $2.00 
SLATER.— The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 

By  J.  W.  SLATER.     I2mo.        .  •     J.        ...        .        .        #3.00 

SLOAN. — American  Houses  : 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  engravings,  with  descriptive  references.  By  SAMUEL 
SLOAN,  Architect.  8vo.  3  .  .  *.  .  .  .75 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture: 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  SAMUEL  SLOAN, 
Architect.  8vo $2.50 

SLOANE. — Ho»r»e  Experiments  in  Science. 
By  T.  O'CONOR  SLCANE,  E.  M.,  A.  M.,  Fh.  D.     Illustrated  by  91 
engravings.     I2tno.  .         .         .         .         .         ,         .        jji.oo 

SMEATON. — Builder's  Pockti- Companion : 

*  Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architecture; 

with   Practical   Rules  and   Instructions  corrected  with  the  subject. 

By  A.  C.  SMEATON,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  I2mo. 
SMITH. — A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 

By  E.  PESHINE  SMITH.     A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 

Index.     I2mo       .  '*  .  .  .    -    .    -    ,        $125 


HENRY  CAREY  iwUKD  <x  UJ.  b  CATALOGUE.          25 


SMITH  —  Parks  and  Pleasure-  Grounds  : 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks,  and 
Gardens.     By  CHARLES    H.  J.   SMITH,    Landscape    Gardener   and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.      I2mo.  ....         $2.cx* 

SMITH.—  The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Com  prising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton^ 
Wool,   and    Worsted,  and   Woolen   Goods;    containing   nearly   8oo< 
Receipts.     To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  ancj 
the   Printing  of   Silk    Warps   Skeins,   and    Handkerchiefs,   and   thel 
vuious    Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such   work.' 
!5y  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern  Dyer.      121110.  .          .         .        $1.50' 

SVIYTH.—  A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 

By  WARRINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S,- 

of  Cornwall.     Fifth   edition,  revised   and   corrected.     With   numer- 

ous illustrations.      I2mo.  .         .        •••'..•'        .          .         $!»4° 

SNIVELY.  —  Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  Anal. 

ysis. 

By  JOHN  H.  SNFVELY,  Phr.  D.     8vo.         .         .•        /"-'.'       $1.00 
SNIVELY.—  The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  chemical 

Analysis  : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.    By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    l6mo. 

$2.00 

STOKES.  —  The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion-. 
Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as   applicable   to   Cabinet  Work  ; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and   Buhl-  Work;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain 
in;j[  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.     Directions  for  Lacker 
ing,  Japanning,   and    V  'r.iishing  ;    to   make  French    Polish,   Glues 
Cements,  and  Compos'      ns;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work 
men  generally.     Bv      STOKES.     Illustrated.     A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upor     ,ench  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
etc.,  etc.    I2mo          .        ,  .......         $1.25 

BTRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS. 
Reports   of  Experiments  on  the   Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.     With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.     By  Officer? 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army.     By  authority  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  War.     Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.    Quarto  .         $5.00 
SULLIVAN.—  Protection  to  Native  Industry. 
By  Sir  EDWARD  SULLIVAN,  Baronet,  author  of  "  Ten  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."     8vo.     .         .         .'•'•      .         .    \    .         .         $1.00 

SHERRATT.—  The  Elements  of  Hand-Railing: 

Simplified  and  Explained  in  Concise  Problems  that  are  Easily  Under- 
stood. The  whole  illustrated  with  Thirty-eight  Accurate  and  Origi- 
nal Plates,  Founded  on  Geometrical  Principles,  and  Showing  how  to 
Make  Rail  Without  Centre  Joints,  Making  Better  Rail  of  the  Same 
Material,  with  Half  the  Labor,  and  Showing  How  to  Lay  Out  Stairs 
of  all  Kinds.  By  R.  J.  SHERRATT.  Folio.  .  .  .  #2.50 


26        HENRY  CAREY  BAIRu  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 

By  DAVID  SYME.     i2mo.  .  ...        £2.0* 

TABLES     SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT     OF     ROUND, 
SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC., 

By  Measurement.     Cloth  .         .         .         .         .  T   ••  H          63 

THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : 

A  Concise  Handbook  on  Tool-Steel  in  General.  Its  Treatment  in 
the  Operations  of  Forging,  Annealing,  Hardening,  Tempering,  etc., 
and  the  Appliances  Therefor.  By  OTTO  THALLNER,  Manager  in 
Chief  of  the  Tool-Steel  Works,  Bismarckhiitte,  Germany.  From  the 
German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  69  engravings. 
194  pages.  8vo.  1902.  ......  $2.00 

TEMPLETON. — The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  thd 

Steam -Engine : 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON,  En- 
gineer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  •  •  •  •  $1.00 

FHAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 

Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
orated from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  THAUSING,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ 
and  DR.  A.  H.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.,  815 
pages  .  .  ,  .  '  ,  .  .  .  .  .  .  $10.00 

THOMPSON. — Political  Economy.     With  Especial  Reference 

to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 

By  ROBERT  E.  THOMPSON,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  I2mo.  .  .  •  -  ,  $1-5° 

THOMSON.— Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent.     241110.        .        .        #1.25 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn, 
i'lg;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them, 
I2mo.  . #l.oo 

TURNING :   Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning  Executed  on  the 

Hand  or  Foot- Lathe : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 
4to. (Scarce.) 


HEJSRV  CAREY    BA1RD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


.— Galvanized- Iron  Cornice -Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  other 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  CHARLES  A.  VAILE. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  410.  .  ,  .  .(Scarce.) 
VILLE.— On  Artificial  Manures  : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  GEORGES  VILLE.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravinys.  8 vo.,  450  pages  .  *•  .  .  .  .  $6.00 
VILLE. — The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 
Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.  From 
the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  Illustrations.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  $1-2$ 
VOGDES.— The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket- Companion 

and  Price-Book: 

Consisting  of  a  Shoit  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo- 
decimals, Geometry  and  Mensuration  ;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
3rick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bilis  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  W.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges $2.00 

Cloth         .  I.S0 

VAN  CLEVE. — The  English  and  American  Mechanic: 
Comprising  a  Collection  of  Over  Three  Thousand  Receipts,  Rules, 
and  Tables,  designed  for  the  Use  of  every  Mechanic  and  Manufac- 
turer. By  B.  FRANK  VAN  CLEVE.  Illustrated.   500  pp.  I2mo.  $2.00 
VAN  DER  BURG.— School  of  Painting  for  the  Imitation  of 

Woods  and  Marbles : 

A  Complete,  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Art  and  Craft  of  Graining  and 
Marbling  with  the  Tools  and  Appliances.     36  plates.     Folio,  12x20 

inches $10.00 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— A  Guide  to  the  Scientific  Examination 

of  Soils: 

Comprising  Select  Methods  of  Mechanical  and  Chemical  A  lalysin 
and  Physical  Investigation.  Translated  from  the  German  of  Dr.  F« 
WAHNSCHAFFE.  With  additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illus- 
trated by  25  engravings.  I2mo.  177  pages  .  .  .  #1.38 
WALTON. — Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated: 
By  THOMAS  H.  WALTON,  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  24  large 
and  Hahorve  Plntes.  after  Actual  Workings  and  Apparatus.  £5.oc 


*«         liENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

WARE.—  The  Sugar  Beet. 

Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varietie 
3i  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva 
cion,  Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIJ 
S.  WARE,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 


WARN.—  The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems  ;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical 
Tin-  Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  $3-OO 

WARNER.  —  New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 
Computation  of  Earth-work  : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes- 
sional Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix, 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explana 
tions  of  the.  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights 
By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illus- 
t-ated  by  14  Plates.  8vo.  .  .  .  .  '.  .  .  $3.00 

WILSON.—  Carpentry  and  Joinery  : 

By  JOHN  WILSON,  Lecturer  on  Building  Construction,  Carpentry  and 
Joinery,  etc.,  in  the  Manchester  Technical  School.  Third  Edition, 
with  65  full-page  plates,  in  flexible  cover,  oblong.  .  .  (Scarce.) 

WATSON.—  A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone,  and  Precious  Woods  ;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing  ;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  By 
EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of  "The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $1.50 

WATSON.  —  The  Modern   Practice  of  American  Machinists 
and  Engineers  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally,  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same  ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  floor.  Together 


HENRY    CAREY    BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.         29 


with  Workshop  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam 
Engine,  Boilers, -Gears,  Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON. 
Illustra-ed  by  eighty-six  engravings.  I2mo.  .  «  .  $2.50 

WATT.— The  Art  of  Soap  Making  : 

A  Practical  Hand-Book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised,  to  which  is  added  an 
Appendix  on  Modern  Candle  Making.  By  ALEXANDER  WATT. 
111.  121110.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $3.00 

WEATHERLY. — Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 
And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  including  Methods  for  Manu- 
facturing every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods.  A 
New  and  Enlarged  Edition,  with  an  Appendix  on  Cocoa,  Chocolate, 
Chocolate  Confections,  etc.  196  pages,  I2mo.  (1903)  .  $1.50 

WILL.— Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  : 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.  By  Pro- 
fessor HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third  American, 
from  the  eleventh  German  edition.  Edited  by  CHARLES  F.  HIMES, 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle, 
Pa.  8vo -  ;  .  .  $1.50' 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam  : 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation  and  Explo- 
sion. By  CHARLES  WYE  WILLIAMS,  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated.  8vo. 

#2.50 

WILSON. — First  Principles  of  Political  Economy: 

With  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
By  Professor  W.  D.  WILSON,  of  the  Cornell  University.  A  new  and 
revised  edition.  I2mo.  ......  $1-5° 

WILSON. — The  Practical  Tool-Maker  and  Designer: 

A  Treatise  upon  the  Designing  of  Tools  and  Fixtures  for  Machine 
Tools  and  Metal  Working  Machinery,  Comprising  Modern  Examples 
of  Machines  with  Fundamental  Designs  for  Tools  for  the  Actual  Pro- 
due  ion  of  the  work;  Together  with  Special  Reference  to  a  Set  of 
Tools  for  Machining  the  Various  Parts  of  a  Bicycle.  Illustrated  by 
189  engravings.  1898.  .  .  .  .  .  $2.50 

CONTENTS:  Introductory.  Chapter  I.  Modern  Tool  Room  and  Equipment. 
II.  Files,  Their  Use  and  Abuse.  III.  Steel  and  Tempering.  IV.  Making  Jigs. 
V.  Milling  Machine  Fixtures.  VI.  Tools  and  Fixtures  for  Screw  Machines.  VII. 
Broaching.  VIII.  Punches  and  Dies  for  Cutting  and  Drop  Press.  IX.  Tools  for 
Hollow-Ware.  X.  Embossing:  Metal,  Coin,  and  Stamped  Sheet-Metal  Orna- 


ments.     XI.  Drop  Forgjng.     XIL  Solid  Drawn  Shells  or  Ferrules;  Cupping  or 
Cutting,  and  Drav 


rop  forging.  All.  ^olid  Drawn  Shells  or  ferrules;  Cupping  or 
awing;  Breaking  Down  Shells.  XIII.  Annealing,  Pickling, and 
Cleaning,  XIV.  Tools  for  Draw  Bench.  XV.  Cutting  and  Assembling  Pieces 
by  Means  of  Ratchet  Dial  Plates  at  One  Operation.  XVI.  The  Header.  XVII. 
Tools  for  Fox  Lathe.  XVIII.  Suggestions  for  a  Set  of  Tools  for  Machining  the 
Various  Parts  of  a  Bicycle.  XIX.  The  Plater's  Dynamo.  XX.  Conclusion— 
With  a  Few  Random  Ideas.  Appendix.  Index. 

WOODS  —Compound  Locomotives : 

By  ARTHUR  TANNATT  W^OODS.     Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 
by  DAVID  LEONARD  BARNES,  A.  M.,  C.  E.     8vo.     330  pp.     $3.00 


30        HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

— i —  — - 

WOHLER.— A  Hand-Bookof  Mineral  Analysis: 

By  F.  WOHLER,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen.  Edited  by  HENRY  B.  NASON,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  $2.50 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws  : 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By  S.  W. 
WORSSAM,  JR.  Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.  8vo.  jM«5° 


RECENT   ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Printing  Inks  and  Sealing. 
Waxes : 

Their  Raw  Materials  and  their  Manufacture,  to  which  is  added  the 
Art  of  Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  including  the  Preparation  of  Put- 
ties and  of  Stains  for  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Horn,  and  Leather.  By 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  39  Engravings,  338  pages. 

I2mo.      ...         . $3«°° 

BRANNT— The  Practical  Scourer  and  Garment  Dyer: 

Comprising  Dry  or  Chemical  Cleaning ;  the  Art  of  Removing  Stains  <, 
Fine  Washing;  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  of  Straw  Hats,  Gloves,  and 
Feathers  of  all  kinds;  Dyeing  of  Worn  Clothes  of  all  fabrics,  in- 
cluding Mixed  Goods,  by  One  Dip;  and  the  Manufacture  of  Soaps 
and  Fluids  for  Cleansing  Purposes.  Edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Editor  of  "The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Illustrated. 
203  pages.  12010.  .  .  .  .  .  $2.00 

BRANNT.— Petroleum . 

its  History,  Origin,  Occurrence,  Production,  Physical  and  Chemical 
Constitution,  Technology,  Examination  and  Uses;  Together  with 
the  Occurrenee  and  Uses  of  Natural  Gas.  Edited  chiefly  from  the 
German  of  Prof.  Hans  Hoefer  and  Dr.  Alexander  Veith,  by  WM. 
T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  3  Plates  and  284  Engravings.  743  pp. 
8vo.  $7.50 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Vine- 

gar  and  Acetates,  Cider,  and  Fruit- Wines  : 
Preservation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  by  Canning  and  Evaporation; 
Preparation  of  Fruit-Butters,  Jellies,  Marmalades,  Catchups,  Pickles, 
Mustards,   etc.     Edited    from    various   sources.     By   WILLIAM   T. 
BRANNT.     Illustrated  by  79  Engravings.     479  pp.     8vo.        $5.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metal  Worker's    Handy-Book   of  Receipts 

and  Processes : 

Being  a  Collection  of  Chemical  Formulas  and  Practical  Manipula- 
tions for  the  working  of  all  Metals;  including  the  Decoration  and 
Beautifying  of  Articles  Manufactured  therefrom,  as  well  as  their 
Preservation.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  $2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         31 

DEITE — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Per- 
fumery : 

Comprising  directions  for  making  all  Kinds  ot  Perfumes.  Sachet 
Powders,  Fumigating  Materials,  Dentifrices,  Cosmetics,  etc.,  with  a 
full  account  of  the  Y  'latile  Oils,  B.ilsams,  Resins,  and  other  Natural 
and  Artificial  Perfume-substances,  including  the  Manufacture  of 
Fruit  Ethers,  and  tests  of  their  purity.  By  Dr.  C.  DEITE.  assisted 
by  L.  BORCHERT,  F.  EICHBAUM,  E.  KUGLER,  H.  TOEFFNER,  and 
other  experts.  From  the  German,  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  28  Engrav- 
ings.  358  pages.  8vo. $3.00 

3D  WARDS. — American    Marine  Engineer,    Theoretical   and 

Practical : 

With  Examples  of  the  latest  and  most  approved  American  Practice. 
By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  85  illustrations.  I2mo.  .  .  $2.50 

EDWARDS.— 900    Examination   Questions  and   Answers: 

For  Engineers  and   Firemen   (Land  and  Marine)  who  desire  to  ob- 
tain a   United   States  Government  or  State  License.     Pocket-book 
form,  gilt  edge         V        .         .         .         .         •    '"''.         •"'"'.     $1-5° 
FLEMMING.— Practical  Tanning: 

A  Handbook  of  Modern  Processes,  Receipts,  and  Suggestions  for  the 
Treatment  of  Hides,  Skins,  and  Pelts  of  Every  Description.  By 
Lewis  A.  Fleinming.  American  Tanner.  472pp.  8 vo.  (1903)  $4.00. 

POSSELT. — The  Jacquard  Machine  Analysed  and  Explained: 

With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E.  A. 
POSSELT.  With  230  illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams.  127  pp. 
4to.  -•  .;  '  .  .  .  .-  .  -  .  .  ••  .  $3-00 

POSSELT. — Recent   Improvements    in    Textile    Machinery, 

Part  III : 

Processes  Required  for  Converting  Wool,  Cotton,  Silk,  from  Fibre 
to  Finished  Fabric,  Covering  both  Woven  and  Knit  Goods  ;  Con- 
struction of  the  most  Modern  Improvements  in  Preparatory  Machin- 
ery, Carding,  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Machinery,  Winding, 
Warping,  Slashing  Machinery  Looms,  Machinery  for  Knit  Goods, 
Dye  Stuffs,  Chemicals,  Soaps,  Latest  Improved  Accessories  Relat- 
ing to  Construction  and  Equipment  of  Modern  Textile  Manufactur- 
ing Plants.  By  E.  A.  POSSELT.  Completel"  Illustrated.  410. 

#7-50 

RICH.— Artistic  Horse-Shoeing: 

A  Practical  and  Scientific  Treatise,  giving  Improved  Methods  of 
Shoeing,  with  Special  Directions  for  Shaping  Shoes  to  Cure  Different 
Diseases  of  the  Foot,  and  for  the  Correction  of  Faulty  Action  in 
Trotters.  By  GEORGE  E.  RICH.  62  Illustrations.  153  pages. 

tsmo      .       .  -  v  i    .  :••••<"•     ;•      .      $1.00 


32       HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD  &  CO.»S  CATALOGUE. 

RICHARDSON.  -Practical  Blacksmithing : 
A  Collection  of  Articles  Contributed  at  Different  Times  by  Skilled 
Workmen  to  the  columns  of  "  The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright," 
and  Covering  nearly  the  Whole  Range  of  Blacksmithing,  from  the 
Simplest  Job  of  Work  to  some  of  the  Most  Complex  Forgings. 
Compiled  and  Edited  by  M.  T.  RICHARDSON. 

Vol.1.  210  Illustrations.  224  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  II.  230  Illustrations.  262  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  '$1.00 
Vol.  III.  390  Illustrations.  307  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  IV.  226  Illustrations.  276  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 

RICHARDSON:— The  Practical  Horseshoer: 
Being  a  Collection  of  Articles  on  Horseshoeing  in  all  its  Branches' 
which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  columns  of  "  Thr 
Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright,"  etc.     Compiled  and  edited  by  M.  T. 
RICHARDSON.     174  illustrations.       .         .         ...        #1.00 

ROPER. — Instructions    and   Suggestions    for   Engineers   and 

Firemen : 
By  STEPHEN   ROPER,  Engineer.     i8mo.     Morocco        .        #2.00 

ROPER.— The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     I2mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges.        $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book: 
Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on  which 
the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  Based.     By  STEPHEN  ROPER, 
Engineer.     160  illustrations,  363  pages.     i8mo.,  tuck       .          $2.50 

ROSE. — Modern  Steam -Engines: 

An  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Steam-Engine,  written  in  Plain 
language ;  for  Use  in  the  Workshop  as  well  as  in  the  Drawing  Office. 
Giving  Full  Explanation  j  of  the  Construction  of  Modern  Steanv 
Engines :  Including  Diagrams  showing  their  Actual  operation.  To- 
gether with  Complete  but  Simple  Explanations  of  the  operations  of 
Various  Kinds  of  Valves,  Valve  Motions,  and  Link  Motions,  etc., 
thereby  Enabling  the  Ordinary  Engineer  to  clearly  Understand  the 
Principles  Involved  in  their  Construction  and  Use,  and  to  Plot  out 
their  Movements  upon  the  Drawing  Board.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  M.  E. 
Illustrated  by  422  engravings.  Revised.  358  pp.  .  .  $6.00 

ROSE.— Steam  Boilers: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination,  for  the 
Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  Inspectors;  and 
embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations  necessary  in  Designing 
or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  73  engravings.  250  pages.  8vo.  .  .  .'  .  $2.^0 

SCHRIBER.— The  Complete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter: 
A  Concise  Compendium  of  the  Art  of  Painting  Carriages,  Wagons, 
and  Sleighs,  embracing  Full  Directions  in  all  the  Various  Branches, 
including  Lettering,  Scrolling,  Ornamenting,  Striping,  Varnishing, 
and  Coloring,  with  numerous  Recipes  for  Mixing  Colon.  73  Illus- 
trations. 177  pp.  I2mo •  .  $i  of 


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